Total water intake by kilogram of body weight: Analysis of the Australian 2011 to 2013 National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey

Abstract

Aim: Water is critical for human survival, yet water intake equations may not reflect contemporary populations. This research aims to determine the total water intake of a representative Australian population, per kilogram of body weight (mL/kg) and stratified by age and sex. Methods: A secondary analysis of the 2011 to 2013 National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey (n = 10 146) was conducted. Dietary intake from food and beverages was assessed by a 24-hour recall, with respondent's weight objectively measured. Data were descriptively analysed, with multiple linear regressions used to identify the impact of demographic and physiologic factors on total water intake (mL/kg). Results:The median (interquartile range) daily total water intake per kilogram of body weight for children (2-8 years), adolescents (9-18 years) and adults (19+ years) were 77.1 (57.4-100) mL/kg, 40.4 (29.3-53.4) mL/kg and 35.5 mL/kg (26.1-47.8), respectively. Increasing height and waist circumference were associated with reduced total water intake, with a change of À1.03 mL/ kg (À1.43, À0.618) [coefficient (95% confidence interval)] in children for height and À0.448 mL/kg (À0.484, À0.412) in adults for waist circumference.Similarly, seasonality decreased intake, with greatest reductions in winter [adolescents: À4.11 mL/kg (À6.83, À1.40)]. In comparison, being male, living in rural areas and having a physical occupation were associated with greater intake, by 1.73 mL/kg (0.347, 3.10), 4.74 mL/kg (3.47, 6.00) and 2.82 (trade workers: 1.08, 4.59) in adults, respectively.Conclusions: Total water intake (mL/kg) decreased with age in both sexes. The results highlight possibilities to incorporate other factors into water intake equations to improve their accuracy.

A systematic review of measurement methods used to estimate fluid and beverage intake in free‐living, working‐age adults

“…In terms of participant characteristics, eight studies were conducted in a general working‐age population with no indication of occupation, 143–145,152,153,155–157 two among farmers, 142,149 two among government workers, 146,147 two in university communities, 150,154 one in weavers 148 and one in hospital workers 151 . The 24‐h recall was the most used method of dietary assessment (seven studies) 143,146,148,151–153,156 . Other methods used were FFQ, diet screeners, a smart cup/app system and a single question regarding fluid intake.…”

“…To capture studies published since the initial search, the search of electronic databases was repeated to end of April 2022. A further 16 papers reporting assessment of fluid or beverage intake were identified 142–157 . These studies were predominately conducted in Asia, Europe and the Middle East.…”

“…151 The 24-h recall was the most used method of dietary assessment (seven studies). 143,146,148,[151][152][153]156 Other methods used were FFQ, diet screeners, a smart cup/app system and a single question regarding fluid intake. No studies conducted in a UK population were identified.…”

“…[142][143][144][145][146][147][148][149][150][151][152][153][154][155][156][157] These studies were predominately conducted in Asia, Europe and the Middle East. In terms of participant characteristics, eight studies were conducted in a general working-age population with no indication of occupation, [143][144][145]152,153,[155][156][157] two among farmers, 142,149 two among government workers, 146,147 two in university communities, 150,154 one in weavers 148 and one in hospital workers. 151 The 24-h recall was the most used method of dietary assessment (seven studies).…”

Current assumptions for quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) of Norovirus contamination of drinking water catchments due to recreational activities: an update

“…A global study by Mons et al (2007) estimated that the mean daily consumption of cold tap water ranged between 0.1 and 1.5 L and QMRA studies on risks to drinking water consumers from microorganisms generally assume that 1 L of unboiled water is consumed daily (NHMRC 2011;WHO 2016). More recently, an Australian study estimated the median total water intake from beverages (including but not specifically tap water) ranged from 1.5 to 2.7 L, with the highest intake during periods of warmer ambient temperature (Mallett et al 2021). Importantly, the study found that water consumption was higher in summer months, which coincides with periods of peak recreational activity.…”