Top Down or Bottom Up? A Cross-National Study of Vertical Occupational Sex Segregation in Twelve European Countries

Abstract

Starting with a comparative assessment of different welfare regimes and political economies from the perspective of gender awareness and "pro-women" policies, this paper identifies the determinants of cross-national variation in women's chances of being in a high-status occupation in twelve West European countries. Special emphasis is given to size and structure of the service sector, including share of women in public employment and structural factors such as trade union density and employment protection. The first level of comparison between men and women concentrates on gender representation in the higher echelons of the job hierarchy, while in the second section we extend the scope of analysis, comparing women in high-status occupations and low-wage employment in order to allow for a more nuanced study of gender and class interaction. The first analysis is based on European Social Survey data for the years 2002, 2004, 2006, and 2008, capturing recent trends in occupational dynamics. Results indicate that in general a large service sector and a high trade union density enhance women's chances of being in a high-status occupations while more specifically a large public sector helps to reduce channeling women in low-wage employment. Thus, equality at the top can well be paired with inequality at the bottom, as postindustrial countries with a highly polarized occupational hierarchy such as the UK show.

From wage regulation to wage gap: how wage-setting institutions and structures shape the gender wage gap across three industries in 24 European countries and Germany

“…The cross-sector within-country analysis is based on the Linked Employer-Employee Data Base (LIAB) for Germany for 2008 (revised extracts based on Schröder and Schäfer, 2013). The LIAB allows for a nuanced view on income, wage-setting institutions and structures as well as workplace characteristics at the firm level by industry.…”

“…Further research on gender wage differentials focusses on different wage regulation settings across countries: nuanced analyses generally confirm that wage-setting institutions play a significant role in reducing the gender earning gap (on trade union ( p. 470) density and share of women in top positions see Schäfer et al, 2012). As report-using data from the 2007 EU Statistics on Income and Living Conditions in 26 member states on the unexplained part of the median earning gap 6 -countries with largely unregulated 7 labour markets show a significantly higher median gender earning gap and 90 th quantile earning gap than contain a variety of single policies that might have countervailing effects on women's employment.…”

The German system of vocational education and training: challenges of gender, academisation and the integration of low-achieving youth

“…Labour market segmentation by gender in Germany, as in other Western countries, has become more pronounced, however. This concerns not only sectoral segmentation, but also working time, pay structures and representation in job hierarchies (Schäfer et al, 2012). In Germany, the social welfare system also comes into play as full-time, continuous and protected employment are strongly linked to a (male) skilled worker’s career in industry (Baethge and Baethge-Kinsky, 1998).…”

The Impact of Learning on Women's Labour Market Transitions

“…During the same period, labour market segmentation by gender has become more pronounced not only in terms of sectoral segmentation, but also in terms of working time, pay structures and representation in job hierarchies. While this has partly created a so-called 'pink-collar' ghetto (Charles & Grusky, 2004), the profiles and extent of this segmentation vary significantly between countries (Schäfer et al, 2012). In an international comparative perspective, two characteristic features of the German welfare state and economy significantly contribute to upholding gendered careers: first, the specific connection between skill formation and the labour market, and, second, the prevalence of the male breadwinner model that makes it likely for women to remain the secondary wage earner.…”