The Use of Cognitive Enhancers Among Medical Students

Mousavi, Fatemeh; Shojaei, Parisa

doi:10.5812/ijhrba.92377

Cited by 7 publications

(11 citation statements)

References 26 publications

(49 reference statements)

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“…A different study also mentioned the relationship between CE and age. 30 This situation supports our hypothesis that students use psychostimulants especially when preparing for residency exams.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 83%

Attitudes of medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry students about psychostimulant use to enhance cognition

et al. 2021

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Cognitive enhancement (CE) is defined as the improvement or extension of core capacities of cognition (eg, memory, attention, concentration and intelligence) of healthy individuals without any medical indications. 1 This situation also described as neuroenhancement, cosmetic neurology or brain doping. 2 Pharmacological cognitive enhancement (PCE), which is a type of CE, can be defined as the use of various drugs or other psychoactive substances. 3,4 Because PCE is often used to increase academic success, these drugs are also called study drugs or smart drugs. Prescribed psychostimulants (PS), such as methylphenidate and modafinil, are the most frequently consumed smart drugs to increase concentration and reduce sleep. These drugs prevent the reuptake of neurotransmitters that play an important role in cognition and pleasure, such as dopamine and norepinephrine, in the brain. 4,5 Effective management of psychoactive substances in healthy people has been an important public health problem due to the easier accessibility and lifestyle use. 6 There are several risks associated with using psychoactive drugs. Psychostimulants are one of the most frequently abused classes of pharmaceutical drugs. 7 They can lead to an increased tolerance for the drugs and create

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 83%

Attitudes of medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry students about psychostimulant use to enhance cognition

et al. 2021

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“…Although no differences between genders in favouring methylphenidate as the most popular CE or in the preferential choice of any CE were recorded, there were gender differences in motivation for use [ 33 ]. Female students’ motivation for CE use were to increase concentration, memory, alertness and academic performance, and because “friends use it”.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Female students’ motivation for CE use were to increase concentration, memory, alertness and academic performance, and because “friends use it”. In contrast, male students’ motivations for CE use were mainly to increase study time and experiment [ 33 ].…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The availability of CEs for non-medical indications in the different countries is affected by a range of factors, including legal, social, and ethical factors [ 33 , 40 , 116 ]. Indeed, some CEs are being openly made available online [ 30 , 117 ], where they are marketed as “smart drugs”, “study drugs”, “plant food”, “research chemicals” and “designer drugs” as well [ 30 , 112 ].…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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The Use and Impact of Cognitive Enhancers among University Students: A Systematic Review

et al. 2021

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Introduction: Cognitive enhancers (CEs), also known as “smart drugs”, “study aids” or “nootropics” are a cause of concern. Recent research studies investigated the use of CEs being taken as study aids by university students. This manuscript provides an overview of popular CEs, focusing on a range of drugs/substances (e.g., prescription CEs including amphetamine salt mixtures, methylphenidate, modafinil and piracetam; and non-prescription CEs including caffeine, cobalamin (vitamin B12), guarana, pyridoxine (vitamin B6) and vinpocetine) that have emerged as being misused. The diverted non-prescription use of these molecules and the related potential for dependence and/or addiction is being reported. It has been demonstrated that healthy students (i.e., those without any diagnosed mental disorders) are increasingly using drugs such as methylphenidate, a mixture of dextroamphetamine/amphetamine, and modafinil, for the purpose of increasing their alertness, concentration or memory. Aim: To investigate the level of knowledge, perception and impact of the use of a range of CEs within Higher Education Institutions. Methodology: A systematic review was conducted in adherence with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Whilst 1400 studies were identified within this study through a variety of electronic databases (e.g., 520 through PubMed, 490 through Science Direct and 390 through Scopus), 48 papers were deemed relevant and were included in this review. Results: The most popular molecules identified here included the stimulant CEs, e.g., methylphenidate, modafinil, amphetamine salt mixtures and caffeine-related compounds; stimulant CEs’ intake was more prevalent among males than females; drugs were largely obtained from friends and family, as well as via the Internet. It is therefore suggested that CEs are increasingly being used among healthy individuals, mainly students without any diagnosed cognitive disorders, to increase their alertness, concentration, or memory, in the belief that these CEs will improve their performance during examinations or when studying. The impact of stimulant CEs may include tolerance, dependence and/or somatic (e.g., cardiovascular; neurological) complications. Discussion: The availability of CEs for non-medical indications in different countries is influenced by a range of factors including legal, social and ethical factors. Considering the risk factors and motivations that encourage university students to use CE drugs, it is essential to raise awareness about CE-related harms, counteract myths regarding “safe” CE use and address cognitive enhancement in an early stage during education as a preventative public health measure.

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“…Reasons for use of prescription drugs as CEs have included improving concentration and focus, staying awake to study, improving memory and coping with study stress [20,21,[24][25][26][27]. But some CEs have been more associated with particular reasons for use than others.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Study drug use among university students in Western Australia: Results of a web survey and their policy and practice implications

Nelson

Jensen

Lenton

2020

Drug and Alcohol Review

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Introduction and Aims Recent research and anecdotal reports suggest increased use of ‘study drugs’ or cognitive enhancers (CE) by university students. Evidence suggests students who use CEs tend to perceive them as effective, but whether CEs improve cognition in healthy individuals is unclear and any drug use carries a risk of harm. Two previous studies have investigated the prevalence of use in Australian university student samples and neither assessed university system factors which may contribute to use. Design and Methods During 2016, a convenience sample of 2133 18–29‐year‐old students across all five Western Australian universities completed a quantitative anonymous web survey targeting both users and non‐users of CE. Results Of the final sample, 7.9% reported use of a prescription drug for CE purposes in the last 12 months. Prescription CE use was predicted by greater frequency of illicit drug use and among students who reported they had not had a take‐home exam in the last 12 months. Rates of use and predictors of over the counter (28.6%) and illicit drugs (2.4%) were predicted by different individual and contextual factors. There were high rates of reporting positive effects from CE use, but although negative effects were reported less commonly, they were not trivial. Discussion and Conclusions These findings have implications for university policy and university health services raising the issue with students and potentially providing clinical interventions addressing CE use. Further research should include representative samples and address both system and individual variables in understanding patterns of CE use among students.

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The Use of Cognitive Enhancers Among Medical Students

Cited by 7 publications

References 26 publications

Attitudes of medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry students about psychostimulant use to enhance cognition

Attitudes of medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry students about psychostimulant use to enhance cognition

The Use and Impact of Cognitive Enhancers among University Students: A Systematic Review

Study drug use among university students in Western Australia: Results of a web survey and their policy and practice implications

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