The Role of Organokines in Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes and Their Functions as Molecular Transducers of Nutrition and Exercise

Abstract

Maintaining systemic homeostasis requires the coordination of different organs and tissues in the body. Our bodies rely on complex inter-organ communications to adapt to perturbations or changes in metabolic homeostasis. Consequently, the liver, muscle, and adipose tissues produce and secrete specific organokines such as hepatokines, myokines, and adipokines in response to nutritional and environmental stimuli. Emerging evidence suggests that dysregulation of the interplay of organokines between organs is associated with the pathophysiology of obesity and type 2 diabetes (T2D). Strategies aimed at remodeling organokines may be effective therapeutic interventions. Diet modification and exercise have been established as the first-line therapeutic intervention to prevent or treat metabolic diseases. This review summarizes the current knowledge on organokines secreted by the liver, muscle, and adipose tissues in obesity and T2D. Additionally, we highlighted the effects of diet/nutrition and exercise on the remodeling of organokines in obesity and T2D. Specifically, we investigated the ameliorative effects of caloric restriction, selective nutrients including ω3 PUFAs, selenium, vitamins, and metabolites of vitamins, and acute/chronic exercise on the dysregulation of organokines in obesity and T2D. Finally, this study dissected the underlying molecular mechanisms by which nutrition and exercise regulate the expression and secretion of organokines in specific tissues.

Roles of organokines in intervertebral disc homeostasis and degeneration

“…Current evidence suggests that the release and interactions of organokines could be regulated by multiple factors, making their impact challenging to quantify. Lifestyle factors such as exercise, diet, stress, sleep, and microbiome profoundly influence organokines production, affecting disc homeostasis and susceptibility to IVDD-related diseases ( 6 , 164 – 166 ). Exercise, known as beneficial for IVD homeostasis, can modulate the release and activity of organ factors like irisin, ANGPTL4, osteocalcin, and adiponectin ( 113 , 167 ).…”

“…An increasing number of studies have shown that organokines, the bioactive factors secreted by diverse tissues, may have a vital impact on disc homeostasis. The expression of organokines can be induced by several factors, including physical activity, diet, aging, and metabolic alterations like obesity and diabetes ( 5 , 6 ). Through autocrine, paracrine, or endocrine mechanisms, organokines have been linked to several inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis ( 7 , 8 ).…”