The age differences and effect of mild cognitive impairment on perceptual-motor and executive functions

Abstract

It is unclear whether the decline in executive function (EF) and perceptual-motor function (PMF) found in older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is the result of a normal aging process or due to MCI. This study aimed to determine age-related and MCI-related cognitive impairments of the EF and PMF. The EF and PMF were investigated across four groups of 240 participants, 60 in each group, including early adult, middle adult, older adult, and older adult with probable MCI. The EF, working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility were evaluated using digit span backward tasks, the Stroop color-word test, and the modified switching verbal fluency test, respectively. The PMF, visual perception, visuoconstructional reasoning, and perceptual-motor coordination were evaluated using the clock reading test, stick design test, and stick catching test, respectively. Group differences were found for all subdomains of EF and PMF (p < 0.05), except for perceptual-motor coordination, indicating that this subdomain could be maintained in older adults and was not affected by MCI. For the age difference, working memory, cognitive flexibility, visual perception, and visuoconstructional reasoning remained stable across middle adults and started to decline in older adults, while cognitive inhibition began to decrease in middle adults and it further declined in older adults. To control the confounding effect of education level, the results showed that only cognitive flexibility was further decreased in older adults with probable MCI compared to those without MCI (p < 0.05). In conclusion, cognitive inhibition decreased earlier in middle adults, whereas EF and PMF started to decline in older adults. Cognitive flexibility was the only MCI-sensitive cognitive function.

Metacognitive Differences in Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment and Healthy Cognition: A Cross-Sectional Study Employing Online Measures

“…Possibly, the WCST might not be as sensitive as tasks like the computerized Stroop, Flanker, Go/No Go, or Trail Making Test, Part B in detecting MCI-related cognitive flexibility deficits, as recent reviews suggest (for reviews, see Guarino et al 2020 ; Miles et al 2021 ). Despite this, the other scores from the WCST did show cognitive flexibility deficits in the aMCI group, aligning with available findings indicating deficits in cognitive flexibility in MCI, both amnestic and nonamnestic ( Corbo and Casagrande 2022 ; Gonçalves et al 2019 ; Rattanavichit et al 2022 ; Ávila et al 2015 ).…”

“…These findings are consistent with the previous literature and the diagnosis of aMCI. Individuals with aMCI, and specifically those with multidomain deficits, exhibit impairments in several cognitive areas, including episodic memory, working memory, prospective memory, verbal fluency, and executive functions, such as control and cognitive flexibility ( Chehrehnegar et al 2020 ; Ávila et al 2015 ; Rattanavichit et al 2022 ). According to our findings, aMCI individuals underperformed compared to HC in tasks requiring visual and verbal recognition and recall.…”

Metacognitive beliefs of efficacy about daily life situations and use of cognitive strategies in amnestic mild cognitive impairment: a cross-sectional study

“…This particular metacognitive-knowledge-gap might not be unique to aMCI individuals but could also be common in the general population. As a result, people with aMCI often face criticism or feedback from their environment related to their forgetfulness, while feedback about a decline in their abilities to think flexibly or to control their behavior may be rarely given or entirely overlooked, even though these deficits exist as evidenced by neuropsychological studies assessing executive functions in individuals with aMCI ( Ávila et al, 2015 ; Chehrehnegar et al, 2020 ; Rattanavichit et al, 2022 ) and received further support from neuroimaging studies showing functional abnormalities within frontoparietal brain areas that construct the neural basis of cognitive control and regulation processes ( Li et al, 2015 ; Sheng et al, 2017 ; Zhao et al, 2022 ). Another possible explanation about these findings could be that the scenarios described in the questionnaire mirror typical and relatively simple daily activities, implying that routine execution might eliminate the apparent impact of cognitive challenges.…”

The Efficacy of a Metacognitive Training Program in Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment: A 6-Month Follow-Up Clinical Study

“…Notably, the MTP exhibited specific benefits on cognitive flexibility, an area where individuals with MCI also show deficiencies [87][88][89]. As a core aspect of executive functions, cognitive flexibility plays an essential role in metacognitive regulation [90].…”