Studies on absorption, distribution and metabolism of ginseng in humans after oral administration

Ginsenoside Rh2 Ameliorates Scopolamine-Induced Learning Deficit in Mice

“…13,[28][29][30] However, upon oral administration, these ginsenosides are metabolized to compound K or ginsenoside Rh2 by intestinal microflora and then absorbed into the bloodstream, respectively. 12,[31][32][33] Ginsenoside Rg3 is particularly significant as it is the main constituent of red ginseng. Upon oral administration of red ginseng, its main constituent, ginsenoside Rg3, may be metabolized to ginsenoside Rh2.…”

Metabolism of Ginsenoside Rb1 by Human Intestinal Microflora and Cloning of Its Metabolizing β-<small>D</small>-Glucosidase from <i>Bifidobacterium longum</i> H-1

“…The ginsenoside Rb1 was metabolized to compound K by intestinal microflora and then the absorbed compound K expresses its pharmacological effects in vivo. [14][15][16][17][18] Thus, hydrophilic constituents of herbal medicines may be dependent on their metabolic activity of intestinal microflora. The β-glucosidase produced by intestinal microflora may play an important role in the pharmacological actions of ginseng constituents, particularly ginsenoside Rb1.…”

“…12,13) Thus, ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2 and Rc are transformed to 20-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol (compound K) by human intestinal bacteria and absorbed into the blood. [14][15][16][17][18] The transformed compound K exhibits the potent antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and antiallergic actions more than ginsenoside Rb1. 12,[19][20][21] Therefore, intestinal bacteria may play the important role in expressing the pharmacological effects of herbal medicines, such as ginseng.…”

Ginsenoside Rh1 Eliminates the Cytoprotective Phenotype of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1-Transduced Human Macrophages by Inhibiting the Phosphorylation of Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Lipoamide Kinase Isozyme 1

“…8,9) When ginseng is orally administered to humans or rats, protopanaxadiol and protopanaxatriol ginsenosides are metabolized to 20-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol (compound K) and ginsenoside Rh1 by intestinal microbiota, respectively. Previous studies have shown that these metabolites are absorbed into the blood, [10][11][12][13] subsequent research has demonstrated that these transformed ginsenosides exhibit more potent biological activities than the parental ginsenosides. 14,15) Recently, Cho et al reported the beneficial effects of red ginseng in HIV-1 infected individuals.…”