Springs ecosystem distribution and density for improving stewardship

Junghans, Katie; Springer, Abraham E.; Stevens, Lawrence E.; Ledbetter, Jeri D.

doi:10.1086/689182

Cited by 21 publications

(16 citation statements)

References 6 publications

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“…Springs are widely recognized for their physical diversity, and are abundant point sources of biodiversity and productivity that often have substantial ecological, socio‐cultural, and economic function and value (Pliny the Elder AD 77, Perrault 1674, Meinzer 1923, Odum 1957, Botosaneanu 1998, Bonn and Bell 2002, Stevens and Meretsky 2008, Kresic and Stevanovic 2010, Glazier 2014, Hershler et al 2014, Wynn et al 2014, Mueller et al 2017). Springs, as well as groundwater‐dependent ecosystem (GDE) ponds and lakes provide headwater baseflow for most natural perennial stream networks in non‐ice‐dominated landscapes (Junghans et al 2016). Springs have played central roles in human and cultural evolution (e.g., Broad 2006, Robinson 2011, Cuthbert and Ashley 2014), and many springs provide economically important drinking, agricultural, industrial, and recreational water sources (Gleick 2010, Kreamer et al 2015).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Springs ecosystem classification

Stevens

Schenk

Springer

2020

Ecological Applications

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Springs ecosystems are globally abundant, geomorphologically diverse, and bioculturally productive, but are highly imperiled by anthropogenic activities. More than a century of scientific discussion about the wide array of ecohydrological factors influencing springs has been informative, but has yielded little agreement on their classification. This lack of agreement has contributed to the global neglect and degradation of springs ecosystems by the public, scientific, and management communities. Here we review the historical literature on springs classification variables, concluding that site-specific source geomorphology remains the most diagnostic approach. We present a conceptual springs ecosystem model that clarifies the central role of geomorphology in springs ecosystem development, function, and typology. We present an illustrated dichotomous key to terrestrial (non-marine) springs ecosystem types and subtypes, and describe those types. We identify representative reference sites, although data limitations presently preclude selection of continentally or globally representative reference springs of each type. We tested the classification key using data from 244 randomly selected springs of 13 types that were inventoried in western North America. The dichotomous key correctly identified springs type in 87.5% of the cases, with discrepancies primarily due to differentiation of primary vs. secondary typology, and insufficient inventory team training. Using that information, we identified sources of confusion and clarified the key. Among the types that required more detailed explanation were hypocrenes, springs in which groundwater is expressed through phreatophytic vegetation. Overall, springs biodiversity and ecosystem complexity are due, in part, to the co-occurrence of multiple intra-springs microhabitats. We describe microhabitats that are commonly associated with different springs types, reporting at least 13 microhabitats, each of which can support discrete biotic assemblages. Interdisciplinary agreement on basic classification is needed to enhance scientific understanding and stewardship of springs ecosystems, the loss and degradation of which constitute a global conservation crisis.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Springs ecosystem classification

Stevens

Schenk

Springer

2020

Ecological Applications

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“…The high number of unmapped springs emphasizes the need for additional surveys to better understand the actual distribution of springs in the region. Ultimately, more surveys in the Crooked River subbasin or the Deschutes Basin could provide the data needed to utilize accumulation curves to estimate actual spring density (Junghans et al, ). Management actions such as monitoring and spring restoration efforts would benefit from an improved understanding of the number and distribution of springs, including the likely numerous unmapped springs (Junghans et al, ).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Seven landscape‐scale variables that describe the hydrogeologic and landscape settings of the springs and that may influence spring discharge type, discharge amount, and water chemistry were derived from other spatial datasets and summarized for each spring. These were (a) catchment area (assuming no interbasin/intercatchment groundwater flow, except between catchments nested within each other), (b) precipitation at the spring, (c) elevation of the spring, (d) number of springs nested within a catchment, (e) number of springs in a spring complex (i.e., spring sites with multiple upwelling points found within the same wetland area; Junghans et al, ), (f) land cover type, and (g) spring density. Although surface catchment areas are not necessarily equivalent to recharge area for groundwater emerging at springs, they provide insight into the scale of probable contributing areas when considered in aggregate.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Although more agencies and land managers are recognizing the importance of preserving spring habitat (e.g., USDA Forest Service, , ), critical information gaps hinder the ability of resource managers to make informed decisions, particularly for low‐discharge springs. Spring mapping on older maps is of variable quality and commonly underestimates the actual number of springs (Junghans, Springer, Stevens, & Ledbetter, ). Most spring maps and geodatasets lack information on recharge area, discharge rate, discharge type (e.g., diffuse‐discharge seeps or discrete‐discharge gushets), water chemistry, whether they are fed by regional versus local flow systems, and other fundamental characteristics that affect habitat type and ecology.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Landscape controls on the distribution and ecohydrology of central Oregon springs

2019

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Small springs in semiarid landscapes are essential for maintaining aquatic biodiversity and supporting livestock grazing operations. However, little is known about controls on the distribution and physical characteristics of small springs, the aquatic species they support, or their sensitivity to disturbance. We address this information gap in the Crooked River subbasin, a tributary of the Deschutes River in Oregon. We conducted spatial analyses on 2,519 mapped springs to investigate the influence of landscape controls (precipitation and bedrock permeability) on spring density in the Crooked River subbasin and the adjacent Upper Deschutes subbasin. Spring density was highest in areas of low bedrock permeability (P < 0.0001) and high annual precipitation (P < 0.0001). We suggest that the high density of small springs on low‐permeability bedrock indicates that these springs generally have short, shallow flow paths and thus may be susceptible to forecasted climate changes. A survey of 137 springs in the Crooked River subbasin revealed the hydrogeologic setting affects spring discharge type (P = 0.017), temperature (P = 0.011), and pH (P = 0.026). We found a high frequency of anthropogenic impacts on springs: 95% of diffuse‐discharge springs and 79% of discrete‐discharge springs were disturbed by livestock grazing. Species inventories at 10 of the most intact surveyed springs confirm that small springs are biologically diverse, with 151 total species of plants and 135 total taxa of macroinvertebrates. Springs in the Crooked River subbasin are ecologically important habitats but require careful management to protect against livestock disturbance and development.

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“…Additionally, seeps can serve as valuable educational tools as these are sites where groundwater is visible. Comprehensive seep and spring location information is available in a limited number of studies (e.g., Junghans et al ), but in most regions seeps are not thoroughly mapped. Without watershed seep maps and baseline seep water quality and flow data, it will be challenging to understand changing conditions.…”

Section: Conclusion and Management Implicationsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Groundwater Seeps: Portholes to Evaluate Groundwater’s Influence on Stream Water Quality

O’Driscoll

DeWalle

Humphrey

et al. 2019

Contemporary Water Research

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Recent legal cases have suggested that contaminated seeps and/or springs that have measurable impacts on adjacent surface water quality may fall under the jurisdiction of the Clean Water Act (CWA). An improved understanding of the effects of groundwater seeps on surface water quality is needed to support the evolving legal and regulatory environment. Surface seeps or seepage zones are locations where upwelling groundwater saturates the surface. Seeps can provide groundwater that may be transported to nearby surface waters along surface and shallow subsurface flowpaths. From a water quality perspective, seeps can provide portholes to observe groundwater quality. Here we consider examples of seeps as contaminant sources or sinks across a range of watershed disturbance and synthesize the seep water quality literature to help answer the questions: Why do seeps act as contaminant sinks in some cases and contaminant sources in others? What areas of seep water quality research can help apprise the legal and policy discussion on the role of the CWA to address groundwater contamination that is conveyed to streams? Overall, the case studies and literature review indicated that seep water quality data can provide valuable insights into the effects of stream-groundwater interactions on stream water quality. Future work on seep-surface water interactions is needed to characterize seep water quality behavior across a range of hydrogeological, meteorological, and land-use conditions to better understand the locations where seeps are more likely to convey contaminants to streams and affect stream water quality.

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Springs ecosystem distribution and density for improving stewardship

Cited by 21 publications

References 6 publications

Springs ecosystem classification

Springs ecosystem classification

Landscape controls on the distribution and ecohydrology of central Oregon springs

Groundwater Seeps: Portholes to Evaluate Groundwater’s Influence on Stream Water Quality

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