Spontaneous preterm birth, a clinical dilemma: Etiologic, pathophysiologic and genetic heterogeneities and racial disparity

Abstract

Preterm labor leading to preterm delivery (<37 weeks' gestation) affects approximately 5-7% of live births in developed countries, but significantly higher in developing countries. Prematurity due to preterm birth (PTB) accounts for around 28% of neonatal mortality worldwide. Approximately 45-50% of PTBs are idiopathic or spontaneous, 30% are related to preterm rupture of membranes, and another 15-20% are attributed to medically indicated or elective preterm deliveries. The rate of spontaneous PTB is also increasing and the exact cause is still unclear. Generalized approaches in screening for high risk status of preterm labor and interventions have failed to reduce PTB rates. PTB presents a clinical dilemma due to etiologic, pathophysiologic and genetic heterogeneities. Racial disparity in PTB rates observed in the US further complicates its understanding. PTB is a complex phenotype and is not initiated by a single etiologic agent. Etiologic factors operate through multiple pathophysiologic pathways, and these pathways include highly overlapping biomarkers and molecular factors creating pathophysiologic heterogeneities. In this article, the current understanding of PTB pathophysiology is reviewed and the need for a much broader approach in research, analysis and interpretation of data is explained, where environmental and race/ethnicity specific risk factors may dictate specific pathways leading to PTB. Recent data on amniotic fluid biomarkers and maternal and fetal genetic variants, which indicate huge disparity between races in the US, are also reviewed. These data suggest that gene-gene interactions and gene-environmental interactions produce distinct pathophysiologic pathways with respect to an individual's genetic make-up and environmental risk exposure. Current strategies of high risk screening and intervention measures may not be generalized, and a more individualized approach may be required to understand PTB and its prevention.

Oral colonization of Gram-negative anaerobes as a risk factor for preterm delivery

“…There are several risk factors associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes, including prenatal care, [12][13][14] 39,40 and infection and inflammation. [41][42][43] Recently, a genetic predisposition for PTB has been proposed, either due to racial disparities that are independent of socio-economic factors, 25 or as part of the gene-environmental interaction associated with either hypo-or hyper-immune responses. 44 In order to establish whether periodontal disease and/or other endogenous infections may pose a risk for PTB and other pregnancy outcomes, it is important to understand how the dental plaque bacterial biofilm forms and why pregnant mothers are at risk for developing periodontal disease.…”

Preterm Birth Genome Project (PGP) – validation of resources for preterm birth genome-wide studies

“…Preterm birth is a complex disease [8,6] and identifi cation of risk factor(s) is of extreme importance for appropriate diagnosis and interventions.…”

“…This complexity is due to pathophysiologic, environmental and genetic heterogeneity [8] . Our lack of understanding of an individual ' s risk (genetic, environmental, gene × gene and gene-environment interactions) has led to our failure to impact the rate of PTB because, at best, only generic " one size fi ts all " treatments have been applied.…”

Does Fetal Sex Influence the Risk of Preterm Delivery in Dichorionic Twin Pregnancies After Spontaneous Conception?

“…Preterm delivery is still the leading cause of perinatal mortality and morbidity in industrialized countries, accounting for 28% of neonatal mortality worldwide (Guyer et al, 1997;Menon, 2008). Nearly 50% of all children born before 26 complete weeks of gestation are severely disabled (Wood et al, 2000).…”