Some Effects of System Information in Instructions for Use

Abstract

Abstract-An experiment was carried out to investigate whether it is useful to add system information to procedural information in instructional text. It was assumed that readers of instructions construct bothDoes someone who operates a device need to know how that device works? Many tend to answer in the negative: "Just tell me what I should do and don't bother me with the technical details." Researchers of user instructions seem to agree; they advocate an action-directed or procedural approach with some additional information only in small introductory or concluding notes (e.g., [1]). Nevertheless, it seems plausible that at least some understanding of the working of a technical device or a software program is useful for operating it adequately and that this understanding might be enhanced by explanatory information in user instructions. In this article, we make a distinction between two types of relevant knowledge for task performance. PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE includes knowledge about goals, actions, and effects of actions, also called a mental plan [2]. SYSTEM KNOWLEDGE includes knowledge about the different parts of the device, their functions, the processes that occur within the device, etc. (for the distinction, see also [3] and [4]). Parallel to these two forms of knowledge, we also distinguish two types of information in instructional documents: PROCEDURAL INFORMATION and SYSTEM INFORMATION. LITERATURE REVIEWPrevious research is not conclusive to the question of whether system information improves task performance. Smith and Goodman showed that instructions with descriptive information enhanced task performance [5]. Kieras and Bovair found that a schematic description of the internal mechanism of a device led to reduction of errors in task performance [6]. However, their study also suggested that this effect occurs only if the information describes the internal functioning of the product, not when it merely stresses motivational aspects or general principles. Experiments by Dixon et al. showed no effect of system information on how accurately subjects chose the actions needed to complete a task [7]. However, they did show an effect of system information on the recall of actions that needed to be performed.Ummelen investigated the use and effects of "declarative" information (including system information) in an experiment with an unknown and rather complex spreadsheet program [8]. Subjects were offered a manual on screen containing two types of text blocks: procedural (stepwise instructions) and declarative (task-related information about the system). The text blocks were blurred and thus illegible, except for the headings that suggested what kind of information the text block contained. By clicking with the mouse on a block, it became legible for the subjects. This "click and read technique" enabled Ummelen to see when, how often, and how long procedural and declarative information were read.The experiment showed that subjects read procedural text blocks more often and for longer periods of time than declara...

Shipboard operating and maintenance procedures and the knowledge gap

“…A shipboard operating and maintenance manual usually contains multiple written procedures and declarative information such as system information (which describes the internal working of the equipment/system) and utilisation information (describing the circumstances in which the equipment/system may be used) (Karreman 2004). This information is not part of the actions required to accomplish something but is there to provide reference information and background knowledge to support the user in understanding the requirements of the written procedures.…”

A process documentation model for DCMI

“…Users studied were able to increase both the amount of text read within a given time and understanding of the material when step outcome was stated first, followed by steps for achieving that outcome. Karreman and Steehouder report no improvement in initial task success when instruction text contains contextual information, but retesting learners after a delay reveals some improvement in longer-term error recognition and understanding of system logic [16].…”

Procedural Instructions, Principles, and Examples

“…For example, instructions on how to replace spark plugs in a car engine might include information about the role they play in the engine (ignite the fuel). This type of information in instructions has been called system information (Karreman & Steehouder, 2004), functional information (Smith & Goodman, 1984), figurative knowledge (Duff & Barnard, 1990), supportive information (Kester, Kirschner, Van Merrienboer, & Baumer, 2001), and principles (Catrambone, 1995b). Sometimes this type of information is referred to as “how it works” information in contrast with “how to do it” information that is indicative of procedural instructions (Bibby & Payne, 1993; Duff & Barnard, 1990).…”

“…The idea that mental representation is the underlying factor determining the benefit of principles is central in the research literature on principles. Most commonly these mental representations are referred to as mental models (Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Bibby & Payne, 1993; Gott, Lajoie, & Lesgold, 1991; Karreman & Steehouder, 2004; Mayer, 1981).…”

“…The authors hypothesized that these results occurred because participants were better able to infer the procedures for operating the system and did not have to rely on rote memorization; this idea was supported by results of follow-up studies using think-aloud protocols. Later studies have indicated an advantage for learning and transfer when principles were added to procedural instructions (Borgman, 1999; Catrambone, 1995b; Karreman & Steehouder, 2003, 2004). However, some studies have found beneficial effects only for transfer measures (Kontogiannis & Sheperd, 1999; Patrick & Haines, 1988; Smith & Goodman, 1984), and others have not found any benefit from providing principles (Berry & Broadbent, 1984; Morris & Rouse, 1985; Reder et al, 1986).…”