Sodium and Potassium and the Pathogenesis of Hypertension

Abstract

The evidence relating blood pressure to salt intake in humans originates from population studies and randomized clinical trials of interventions on dietary salt intake. Estimates from meta-analyses of trials in normotensive subjects generally are similar to estimates derived from prospective population studies (+1.7-mm Hg increase in systolic blood pressure per 100 mmol increment in 24-hour urinary sodium). This estimate, however, does not translate into an increased risk of incident hypertension in subjects consuming a high-salt diet. The meta-analyses of intervention trials have consistently shown that potassium supplementation is associated with lowering of blood pressure. However, prospective studies relating health outcomes to 24-hour urinary sodium and/or potassium excretion produced inconsistent results. Taken together, available evidence does not support the current recommendations of a generalized and indiscriminate reduction of salt intake at the population level, although the blood-pressure lowering effect of dietary sodium restriction might be of value in hypertensive patients. Potassium supplementation in hypertensive patients or healthy persons is not recommended by the current guidelines, but importance of adhering to healthy diet rich in vegetables and fruits is emphasized.

Molecular Targets of Antihypertensive Peptides: Understanding the Mechanisms of Action Based on the Pathophysiology of Hypertension

“…Diet manipulation studies such as dietary approaches to stop hypertension (DASH) suggest that adoption of a healthy diet (rich in fruits and vegetables) could lower high blood pressure [ 18 , 19 ]. Similarly, compounds like dietary sodium (present in table salt) and dietary potassium also have a great impact on blood pressure and associated vascular diseases [ 20 , 21 , 22 ]. Moreover, various clinical studies have demonstrated that macronutrients (protein, fat, and carbohydrate) can play key role in the management of high blood pressure.…”

Minerals in drinking water available in Bangkok, Nakhon Nayok, and Chachoengsao

“…Normally, individuals receive nutrient minerals mainly from dietary foods. Drinking water containing high levels of calcium, magnesium, and potassium can be crucial in the prevention of magnesium deficiency 5,32 as well as contribute significantly to the daily calcium and potassium intake for persons with calcium or potassium-deficient diets 10,[33][34][35] .…”

“…Calcium and magnesium benefit health in preventing several diseases including cardiovascular diseases [5][6][7] . Sodium is found considerably in daily foods and because of its undesired hypertensinogenic effect, its presence in drinking water is considered a health risk [8][9][10] . Iron in drinking water results in disagreeable taste and rusty colour 11 .…”

The Contributory Role of Angiotensin Receptor-Like 1 Gene Multiple Polymorphisms in Hypertension among Northeastern Han Chinese

“…A question thus arises as to whether the significant association observed in southern Chinese can be extrapolated to northern Chinese, considering the fact that China has a vast territory with obvious regional differentiation in socio-economic development levels and the physical environmental conditions, which can result in different causal factors of disease [24]. For example, it is widely known that high-salt diet can induce or aggravate hypertension in both animal models and humans [25], [26]. However, salt consumption between northern and southern Chinese differs remarkably.…”