Salivary Biomarkers of Stress, Anxiety and Depression

Abstract

Stress, anxiety and depressive disorders are often characterized by the activation of the stress axis, which results in similar symptoms at some point in these disorders. These disorders are closely related to each other—they occur simultaneously or follow one another. The diagnosis of stress, anxiety and depression is not a perfect procedure currently—it is based on patient observation and an interview with the patient and their family. There are no laboratory tests that would dispel the doubts of the doctor making the diagnosis and allow the appropriate treatment to be implemented as soon as possible. Therefore, this study will review the components of saliva that could be helpful in the quick diagnosis of stress, anxiety and/or depression. Such potential salivary biomarkers could also be useful in monitoring the effectiveness of pharmacological treatment prescribed by a psychiatrist. The following are promising salivary biomarkers of stress, anxiety or depression: cortisol, immunoglobulin A (sIgA), lysozyme, melatonin, α-amylase (sAA), chromogranin A (CgA) and fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2). To the best valuable potential salivary markers of stress, we can include cortisol, lysozyme, sAA and CgA. To differentiate depression from stress, salivary cortisol and melatonin can be helpful. Fluctuations in the concentrations of the above-mentioned substances in saliva indicate a particularly strong relationship with typical human psychological problems, such as stress, depression or anxiety.

Differential responses of salivary cortisol, amylase, and chromogranin A to academic stress

“…A large number of studies have confirmed the use of sCort and sAA as markers of stress as reviewed elsewhere [ 9 , 11 , 14 , 20 , 21 ]. For sCgA, there are also many studies on its increased level in response to various models of both psychological and physical stress [ 30 – 36 ].…”

“…Various methods have been used for stress evaluation, e.g. collecting questionnaires [ 3 , 4 ], physical examination by evaluating heart rate, electrocardiogram, heart rate variability, skin conductance, or sweat production [ 5 – 7 ], and evaluation of biological markers indicating the physiological response to stress [ 8 , 9 ]. The body’s response to stress involves two major systems which are the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the sympathetic-adrenal-medullary (SAM) system [ 10 – 14 ].…”

Smell and Stress Response in the Brain: Review of the Connection between Chemistry and Neuropharmacology

“…They cited, as other stress marker candidates, testosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulfonated analogue DHEA-S, α-amylase, secretory immunoglobulin A, and chromogranin A. Quite recently, Chojnowska et al [ 28 ] suggested, in their review article, that promising salivary biomarkers of stress, anxiety, or depression are cortisol, immunoglobulin A (IgA), lysozyme, melatonin, α-amylase, chromogranin A, and fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2). Among these, they mentioned cortisol, lysozyme, α-amylase, and chromogranin A as the most valuable potential markers of stress.…”

Neurocosmetics in Skincare—The Fascinating World of Skin–Brain Connection: A Review to Explore Ingredients, Commercial Products for Skin Aging, and Cosmetic Regulation

“…Vital parameters such as heart activity recorded with ECG [64], respiratory activity/frequency, salivary samples for monitoring cortisol release [65,66] (i.e., the decrease in cortisol secretion in saliva after the use of a soothing cream should be observed) [56,67], thermography related to cutaneous blood flow (i.e., when blushing, etc. ), the evolution of facial skin temperature under stress [64], and the electrical current perception threshold (CPT); the hyperexcitability of nerve endings (Aβ) increases with age, in which a threshold increase indicates a reduction of unpleasant excitability, (i.e., an improved state of wellness .…”

“…If the exposure to stress is prolonged, skin cells do not stop the production of cortisol, also known as the stress hormone; thus, its levels remain elevated, causing a cascade of damaging consequences [65,66,71,72]. In this regard, the breakdown of skin homeostasis takes place, inducing inflammation and a visibly tired look [56].…”