Ross River Virus and Barmah Forest Virus Infections: A Review of History, Ecology, and Predictive Models, with Implications for Tropical Northern Australia

Abstract

The purpose of the present article is to present a review of the Ross River virus (RRV) and Barmah Forest virus (BFV) literature in relation to potential implications for future disease in tropical northern Australia. Ross River virus infection is the most common and most widespread arboviral disease in Australia, with an average of 4,800 national notifications annually. Of recent concern is the sudden rise in BFV infections; the 2005-2006 summer marked the largest BFV epidemic on record in Australia, with 1,895 notifications. Although not life-threatening, infection with either virus can cause arthritis, myalgia, and fatigue for 6 months or longer, resulting in substantial morbidity and economic impact. The geographic distribution of mosquito species and their seasonal activity is determined in large part by temperature and rainfall. Predictive models can be useful tools in providing early warning systems for epidemics of RRV and BFV infection. Various models have been developed to predict RRV outbreaks, but these appear to be mostly only regionally valid, being dependent on local ecological factors. Difficulties have arisen in developing useful models for the tropical northern parts of Australia, and to date no models have been developed for the Northern Territory. Only one model has been developed for predicting BFV infections using climate and tide variables. It is predicted that the exacerbation of current greenhouse conditions will result in longer periods of high mosquito activity in the tropical regions where RRV and BFV are already common. In addition, the endemic locations may expand further within temperate regions, and epidemics may become more frequent in those areas. Further development of predictive models should benefit public health planning by providing early warning systems of RRV and BFV infection outbreaks in different geographical locations.

Arthrogenic Alphaviruses and Inflammatory Myopathies

“…BFV infection is believed to be largely under-diagnosed due to the similarity to RRV in disease presentation and geographic distribution (McGill, 1995). However, the clinical disease presentation of BFV infection has been documented to involve arthralgia and myalgia, suggesting that this is another alphavirus with the potential for causing an inflammatory myopathy (Jacups et al, 2008). O'nyong-nyong virus (ONNV) is an alphavirus antigenically related to CHIKV.…”

The Structure of Barmah Forest Virus as Revealed by Cryo-Electron Microscopy at a 6-Angstrom Resolution Has Detailed Transmembrane Protein Architecture and Interactions

“…BFV infection causes a mild disease in humans with symptoms similar to those observed in Ross River virus (RRV) infections: fever, rash, muscle tenderness, and polyarthritis (12). Fever is typically self limiting and usually disappears within a week, but joint and muscle pain may persist for up to 6 months or longer, making BFV infection a major public health concern (12).…”

“…Fever is typically self limiting and usually disappears within a week, but joint and muscle pain may persist for up to 6 months or longer, making BFV infection a major public health concern (12). Since its discovery, there has been an increase in the number of reported cases throughout Australia (12), due in part to the availability of better diagnostic tools and increased surveillance. At present, BFV has been the cause of outbreaks of human disease in Australia.…”

Chikungunya and Its Interaction With the Host Cell

“…The symptoms generally resolve within 7-10 days, except for joint stiffness and pain: up to 12 % of patients still have chronic arthralgia 3 years after onset of the illness. Arthralgia experienced by CHIKV patients closely resembles the symptoms induced by other viruses like RRV and BFV [46,47]. Neurological complications such as meningoencephalitis were reported in a few patients during the first Indian outbreak in 1973, and during the 2006 Indian outbreak [48][49][50].…”