Reactions of aqueous chlorine and chlorine dioxide with model food compounds.

Abstract

Chlorine and chlorine dioxide (ClO2), common disinfecting and bleaching chemicals used in the food industry, are potent oxidizing and chlorinating agents. Unfortunately, little is known about the nature of the reactions of chlorine with organic food constituents. This presentation reviews published information concerning the reactions of chlorine gas (Cl2[g]), aqueous chlorine, and ClO2 with model food compounds, the fate of chlorine during the chlorination of specific food products, and the potential toxicity of the reaction products. Fatty acids and their methyl esters react with chlorine with the degree of incorporation corresponding to their degree of unsaturation. Aqueous chlorine oxidizes and chlorinates lipids and amino acids much more readily than ClO2. Several amino acids are highly susceptible to oxidation and chlorination by chlorine compounds. Reactions of chlorine and ClO2 with several food products, including flour and shrimp, have also been characterized. In one model system, 99% of Cl2(g) either reacted with components of flour or was consumed by oxidation/chlorination reactions. The lipids extracted from the chlorinated flour contained significant amounts of chlorine. Exposure of shrimp to hypochlorous acid (HOCl) solution resulted in significant incorporation of chlorine into the edible portion. Although significant quantities of chlorine can be incorporated into specific model compounds and food products, the health risks associated with exposure to chlorinated organic products are unknown. Preliminary studies using the Ames Salmonella/microsome mutagenicity assay indicate that the reaction products from mixtures of aqueous chlorine and various lipids or tryptophan are nonmutagenic. Nevertheless, additional studies are warranted, so that the toxicological significance of these reaction products can be understood more fully.

Vesicle-Cloaked Rotavirus Clusters are Environmentally Persistent and Resistant to Free Chlorine Disinfection

“…Viral vesicles have significant public health impacts because they are resistant to disinfection. Free chlorine is known to react with viral proteins and genomes instead of lipids, ,, and we also did not observe a significant change in vesicle integrity after free chlorine exposure. Therefore, it is reasonable to speculate that hypochlorous acid (the dominant free chlorine species at pH 6) could penetrate through the vesicle membrane and oxidize the viral capsid proteins and genomes, whereas the vesicle membrane structure remains intact (schematic model, Figure ).…”

Vesicle-Cloaked Rotavirus Clusters are Environmentally Persistent and Resistant to Free Chlorine Disinfection

“…Viral vesicles have significant public health impacts because they are resistant to disinfection. Free chlorine is known to react with viral proteins and genomes instead of lipids, ,, and we also did not observe a significant change in vesicle integrity after free chlorine exposure. Therefore, it is reasonable to speculate that hypochlorous acid (the dominant free chlorine species at pH 6) could penetrate through the vesicle membrane and oxidize the viral capsid proteins and genomes, whereas the vesicle membrane structure remains intact (schematic model, Figure ).…”

BT100, a three-in-one, multipurpose disinfecting, deodorizing, and air-cleaning solution with an effective, gradual, and continuous gaseous chlorine dioxide-releasing substance

“…Consequently, the oxidative activity of ClO 2 is stronger than ClO 2 − . The E° of ClO 2 is lower than that of hydroxyl radical (·OH, 2.8 V), ozone (O 3 , 2.07 V), and hypochlorous acid (HClO, 1.49 V), therefore, it undergoes more selective oxidative reaction than these other molecules [ 34 , 45 ]. ClO 2 has a very broad range of applications since it may be employed as a gas or a solution.…”

“…Model systems can serve as a proxy for human enteric viruses while having no negative impact on health, making them an effective testing tool. The MS2 bacteriophage, commonly utilized as a viral model system [ 34 , 36 , 37 ], has been demonstrated to be acceptable for this investigation. Bacteria ( Escherichia coli , ATCC 15597) and bacteriophages ( Escherichia coli bacteriophages MS2, ATCC 15597-B1, Manassas, VA, USA) were employed as the model system in this work.…”

Inactivation of Bacillus anthracis Spores by Liquid Biocides in the Presence of Food Residue

“…The presence of flour, milk, and egg yolk in these tests provided an indication of decontamination outcomes when starch-or protein-rich foods are present along with spores. When hypochlorite reacts with sulfhydryl groups from sulfurcontaining amino acids, some loss of active agents occurs (9,10). Egg protein contains a relatively high quantity of sulfurcontaining amino acids, which could have been responsible for the destructive effect on sodium hypochlorite efficacy.…”

Vesicle-Cloaked Rotavirus Clusters are Environmentally Persistent and Resistant to Free Chlorine Disinfection

“…Viral vesicles have significant public health impacts because they are resistant to disinfection. Free chlorine is known to react with viral proteins and genomes instead of lipids, ,, and we also did not observe a significant change in vesicle integrity after free chlorine exposure. Therefore, it is reasonable to speculate that hypochlorous acid (the dominant free chlorine species at pH 6) could penetrate through the vesicle membrane and oxidize the viral capsid proteins and genomes, whereas the vesicle membrane structure remains intact (schematic model, Figure ).…”

BT100, a three-in-one, multipurpose disinfecting, deodorizing, and air-cleaning solution with an effective, gradual, and continuous gaseous chlorine dioxide-releasing substance

“…Consequently, the oxidative activity of ClO 2 is stronger than ClO 2 − . The E° of ClO 2 is lower than that of hydroxyl radical (·OH, 2.8 V), ozone (O 3 , 2.07 V), and hypochlorous acid (HClO, 1.49 V), therefore, it undergoes more selective oxidative reaction than these other molecules [ 34 , 45 ]. ClO 2 has a very broad range of applications since it may be employed as a gas or a solution.…”

“…Model systems can serve as a proxy for human enteric viruses while having no negative impact on health, making them an effective testing tool. The MS2 bacteriophage, commonly utilized as a viral model system [ 34 , 36 , 37 ], has been demonstrated to be acceptable for this investigation. Bacteria ( Escherichia coli , ATCC 15597) and bacteriophages ( Escherichia coli bacteriophages MS2, ATCC 15597-B1, Manassas, VA, USA) were employed as the model system in this work.…”

Inactivation of Bacillus anthracis Spores by Liquid Biocides in the Presence of Food Residue

“…The presence of flour, milk, and egg yolk in these tests provided an indication of decontamination outcomes when starch-or protein-rich foods are present along with spores. When hypochlorite reacts with sulfhydryl groups from sulfurcontaining amino acids, some loss of active agents occurs (9,10). Egg protein contains a relatively high quantity of sulfurcontaining amino acids, which could have been responsible for the destructive effect on sodium hypochlorite efficacy.…”

Vesicle-Cloaked Rotavirus Clusters are Environmentally Persistent and Resistant to Free Chlorine Disinfection

“…Viral vesicles have significant public health impacts because they are resistant to disinfection. Free chlorine is known to react with viral proteins and genomes instead of lipids, ,, and we also did not observe a significant change in vesicle integrity after free chlorine exposure. Therefore, it is reasonable to speculate that hypochlorous acid (the dominant free chlorine species at pH 6) could penetrate through the vesicle membrane and oxidize the viral capsid proteins and genomes, whereas the vesicle membrane structure remains intact (schematic model, Figure ).…”

BT100, a three-in-one, multipurpose disinfecting, deodorizing, and air-cleaning solution with an effective, gradual, and continuous gaseous chlorine dioxide-releasing substance

“…Consequently, the oxidative activity of ClO 2 is stronger than ClO 2 − . The E° of ClO 2 is lower than that of hydroxyl radical (·OH, 2.8 V), ozone (O 3 , 2.07 V), and hypochlorous acid (HClO, 1.49 V), therefore, it undergoes more selective oxidative reaction than these other molecules [ 34 , 45 ]. ClO 2 has a very broad range of applications since it may be employed as a gas or a solution.…”

“…Model systems can serve as a proxy for human enteric viruses while having no negative impact on health, making them an effective testing tool. The MS2 bacteriophage, commonly utilized as a viral model system [ 34 , 36 , 37 ], has been demonstrated to be acceptable for this investigation. Bacteria ( Escherichia coli , ATCC 15597) and bacteriophages ( Escherichia coli bacteriophages MS2, ATCC 15597-B1, Manassas, VA, USA) were employed as the model system in this work.…”

Inactivation of Bacillus anthracis Spores by Liquid Biocides in the Presence of Food Residue

“…The presence of flour, milk, and egg yolk in these tests provided an indication of decontamination outcomes when starch-or protein-rich foods are present along with spores. When hypochlorite reacts with sulfhydryl groups from sulfurcontaining amino acids, some loss of active agents occurs (9,10). Egg protein contains a relatively high quantity of sulfurcontaining amino acids, which could have been responsible for the destructive effect on sodium hypochlorite efficacy.…”