Racism and Health I

Abstract

This article reviews the scientific research that indicates that despite marked declines in public support for negative racial attitudes in the United States, racism, in its multiple forms, remains embedded in American society. The focus of the article is on the review of empirical research that suggests that racism adversely affects the health of non-dominant racial populations in multiple ways. First, institutional racism developed policies and procedures that have reduced access to housing, neighborhood and educational quality, employment opportunities and other desirable resources in society. Second, cultural racism, at the societal and individual level, negatively affects economic status and health by creating a policy environment hostile to egalitarian policies, triggering negative stereotypes and discrimination that are pathogenic and fostering health damaging psychological responses such as stereotype threat and internalized racism. Finally, a large and growing body of evidence indicates that experiences of racial discrimination are an important type of psychosocial stressor that can lead to adverse changes in health status and altered behavioural patterns that increase health risks.

Perceived racial/ethnic discrimination and psychological outcomes among adult international adoptees in Finland: Moderating effects of social support and sense of coherence.

“…These findings are in line with several reviews and studies that have consistently suggested that experienced discrimination has a harmful psychological impact on those against whom it is directed (e.g., Brondolo et al, 2009b;Harrell, 2000;Harris et al, 2006: Krieger, 1999Paradies, 2006;Priest et al, 2012;Williams & Mohammed, 2009;2013a;2013b).…”

“…Numerous review articles have found that racial/ethnic discrimination contributes to variations in health risks within racial and ethnic minorities (Brondolo, Gallo, & Myers, 2009b;Paradies, 2006;Priest et al, 2012;Williams & Mohammed, 2009;2013a;2013b).…”

Psychosocial Mechanisms Underlying Older Black Men’s Health

“…For example, Black men may experience stress vicariously as a result of family and close friends being exposed to race-based and general stressors (Williams & Mohammed, 2013). Neighborhood stressors such as exposure to toxins, violence, and surveillance may also negatively affect Black men's health (Williams, 2003).…”

“…Scholarship in this area has generally focused on specific discrete and chronic stressors, including discrimination (e.g., major events such as being unfairly fired or denied a promotion; everyday experiences with discrimination such as being treated with less courtesy), chronic strains (e.g., work-family conflict), traumas (e.g., being a victim of or witnessing violence), recent life events (e.g., involuntary job loss), and financial strain (e.g., difficulty paying bills)-showing that each has harmful effects on mental and physical health (Thoits, 2010;Turner, Thomas, & Brown, 2016;Umberson et al, 2016;Williams & Mohammed, 2013). Furthermore, a study by Sternthal, Slopen, & Williams (2011) illustrates the importance of examining the effects of cumulative stress exposure, as well as the collective effects of numerous stressors in order to determine their unique impacts on health.…”

Explaining intersectionality through description, counterfactual thinking, and mediation analysis

“…Early on, we made clear: ''In attributing disparities to race, we mean the historical legacy of racism in the United States (US) taking shape through various means, including slavery, Jim Crow, and segregation [12]. This legacy involves discrimination which may be intentional or the result of policies, laws or practices that systematically disadvantage blacks and shape economic opportunities [13] (and also) indirect processes whereby blacks are more vulnerable to economic or political shifts because of this legacy'' [14]. The reality of class in the US can reinforce this legacy by mediating access to quality neighborhoods, housing, and education.…”