Prevalence and psychopathology of vegetarians and vegans – Results from a representative survey in Germany

Abstract

The aim of the study was to investigate the prevalence of, and attitudes toward, vegetarianism and veganism. We also assessed the association between vegetarianism/veganism and eating disorder, depressive, and somatic symptoms. A cross-sectional questionnaire survey in adults in Germany that was representative in terms of age, gender, and educational level was carried out. Data from 2449 adults (53.5% females) were included. Mean age was 49.6 (SD 17.1) years. A total of 5.4% of participants reported following a vegetarian or vegan diet. While the majority of participants agreed that vegetarian diets are healthy and harmless (56.1%), only 34.8% believed this to be true of vegan diets. The majority of participants also believed that a vegetarian (58.7%) or vegan (74.7%) diet can lead to nutritional deficiency. Female gender, younger age, higher education, lower body mass index (BMI), and higher depressive and eating disorder symptoms were found to be associated with vegetarianism/veganism. We did not find increased physical complaints in the group of vegetarians/vegans. Our results point toward a moderate prevalence of vegetarianism/veganism among the general population. Our findings suggest that health care professionals should keep eating disorder pathology, affective status in mind when dealing with individuals who choose a vegetarian/vegan dietary pattern.of vegetarians are found in India, where they comprise 30% of the population 12,13 . Veganism is less common with the prevalence reported to be about 2% in the United States 10 and less than 1% in Germany 14 . In several studies, education and income were found to be inversely associated with meat consumption [14][15][16] . Subsequent research conducted within Central European countries also indicates that vegetarians tend to be more educated and affluent than omnivores 14,17 . Allès et al. 18 confirmed that vegetarians tend to be more educated than omnivores, but also found out that vegans tend to have lower educational attainment. Additionally, women are far more likely to be vegetarian than men 8 ; even among non-vegetarians, women have been found to eat considerably less meat than men 1,14,19,20 .Although strict and unbalanced dietary restrictions can pose a risk of micronutrient deficiencies 2 , it is the position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics that appropriately planned vegetarian diets are nutritionally adequate and may be beneficial for health 21 . A comprehensive meta-analysis of 80 studies provides evidence for the link between a vegetarian diet and a lowered risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, obesity, and certain types of cancer 22 . Vegetarianism has also been associated with reduced risk of hypertension, diverticular disease, degenerative arthritis, and metabolic syndrome in other studies 4,23 . Also, the use of vegetarian and vegan diets is often associated with other health behaviors including non-smoking and regular physical activity 1 . Additionally, studies conducted in Western countries have consistently shown that v...

Is Vegetarianism Related to Anxio-Depressive Symptomatology? A Cross-Sectional Survey in A Large French Sample

“…Moreover, for many vegetarians, concern about the ethics of raising and slaughtering animals may be a central motivation (35) which could also affect their response to a question on their own happiness because of the empathic inclusion of animals. Our study also showed that vegetarians had better self-reported health than non-vegetarians, and that they displayed lower BMIs, which is consistent with previous studies (36,37,38) . However, some limitations affecting this study need to be discussed.…”

“…While the replacement of meat products with vegetarian diets lowers the risk of cardiovascular issues, obesity, and diabetes, and is considered by the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics as nutritionally adequate when appropriately planned, and even potentially bene cial for health (4) , the bene ts to mental health remain widely discussed. Many studies have indicated that individuals with low meat consumption or a vegetarian diet are exposed to an increased risk of depression (5,6,7,8) . Such results have commonly been understood as the outcome of potential nutritional de cits in vitamin B12, long-chain n-3 fatty acids, folates, and/or zinc (9,10,11) .…”

Protein Intake and Frailty: A Matter of Quantity, Quality, and Timing

“…Veganism, covering a variety of diet patterns that involve the avoidance of meat, has gained increasing popularity and represents a growing social movement [ 135 ]. Adherence to a vegan diet, even if only for short periods (7 weeks), might beneficially affect several cardiovascular risk factors [ 136 , 137 ], including BW, body mass index, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, total and high-density cholesterol, and C-reactive protein, as well as ameliorate the quality of life [ 137 ].…”

Trends and between-Physician Variation in Laboratory Testing: A Retrospective Longitudinal Study in General Practice

“…Given the higher prevalence of osteoporosis [ 36 ], iron deficiency [ 37 ], and thyroid disorders [ 38 ] in female patients, our findings are concordant with epidemiologic disease distribution. The higher testing rate of vitamin B12 in female patients is less obvious to understand and may be linked to anemia investigations being more frequent in female patients due to iron deficiency and, in addition, to female sex being associated with vegetarian or vegan diet requiring vitamin B12 monitoring [ 39 ]. These factors, however, do not explain the high between-GP variation in vitamin B12 testing rates.…”