Potential Environmental and Health Implications from the Scaled-Up Production and Disposal of Nanomaterials Used in Biosensors

Abstract

Biosensors often combine biological recognition elements with nanomaterials of varying compositions and dimensions to facilitate or enhance the operating mechanism of the device. While incorporating nanomaterials is beneficial to developing high-performance biosensors, at the stages of scale-up and disposal, it may lead to the unmanaged release of toxic nanomaterials. Here we attempt to foster connections between the domains of biosensors development and human and environmental toxicology to encourage a holistic approach to the development and scale-up of biosensors. We begin by exploring the toxicity of nanomaterials commonly used in biosensor design. From our analysis, we introduce five factors with a role in nanotoxicity that should be considered at the biosensor development stages to better manage toxicity. Finally, we contextualize the discussion by presenting the relevant stages and routes of exposure in the biosensor life cycle. Our review found little consensus on how the factors presented govern nanomaterial toxicity, especially in composite and alloyed nanomaterials. To bridge the current gap in understanding and mitigate the risks of uncontrolled nanomaterial release, we advocate for greater collaboration through a precautionary One Health approach to future development and a movement towards a circular approach to biosensor use and disposal.

A Comprehensive Ecotoxicity Study of Molybdenum Disulfide Nanosheets versus Bulk form in Soil Organisms

“…Research on the toxicity of engineered NPs is still in development. Specifically, there is a significant knowledge gap regarding the potential environmental impacts of MoS 2 NPs applied in novel technologies [25]. In this study, 2D MoS 2 NPs or bulk MoS 2 did not significantly affect the adult survival of E. crypticus (p > 0.05; Figure 2A) or F. candida (p > 0.05; Figure 2C) across all tested concentrations.…”

“…NPs have unique physical properties distinct from the properties of their corresponding bulk forms due to increased relative surface area per volume unit and the dominance of quantum effects [25]. As the size decreases, the surface energy of the particles is expected to increase, which normally results in enhanced dissolution and solubility of NPs as compared to the bulk form [44].…”

Life Cycle Assessment of Magnetite Production Using Microfluidic Devices: Moving from the Laboratory to Industrial Scale

“…Considering the importance of wastewater discharges, several studies have revealed strategies to reduce toxic effects from nanomaterials synthesis that directly affect both human health and the environment. Alternatives to traditional techniques for the reuse and recycling of nanoparticles have been discussed, which involve centrifugation and solvent evaporation . Recent studies have demonstrated that the use of eco-friendly routes during the production of nanoparticles is necessary to neutralize the nanoparticle waste before disposal .…”

“…Alternatives to traditional techniques for the reuse and recycling of nanoparticles have been discussed, which involve centrifugation and solvent evaporation. 47 Recent studies have demonstrated that the use of eco-friendly routes during the production of nanoparticles is necessary to neutralize the nanoparticle waste before disposal. 48 Green alternatives to produce MNPs based on the benefits of microbes use such as bacteria, microalgae, yeast, actinomycetes, and fungi have also been reported to carry out responsible industrial production.…”

Modern Electrochemical Biosensing Based on Nucleic Acids and Carbon Nanomaterials

“…This approach also opens up wide possibilities for the scalability of the production of low-cost sensors. However, one should also remember about the dangers of mass-production and the disposal of nanomaterials [ 149 ]. The synthesis and application of more complex materials, which combine the advantages of few components, such as polymer–carbon nanomaterial composites, still remain a topic of research that gives room for further development [ 150 ].…”