Positive and Negative Outcome Expectations of Smoking: Implications for Prevention

Adapting the Smoking Expectancy Scale for Adolescents (SESA) to Turkish Culture

“…In this study, the items on Health Costs and Addiction were examined under the same factor (Negative Expectancies on Smoking). Dalton et al (1999) reported that the items of Health and Habits could be examined under the same context (Turkish Statistical Institute, 2012). Budd and Preston (2001) examined the items of addiction under the factor of Health Costs in their scale developed over detecting the attitudes and beliefs of students on smoking (Koval et al, 2006).…”

“…Expecting any benefit from smoking, especially for depressed adolescents in terms of starting smoking, is risky (Covington & Omelich, 1988). Some adolescents may consider smoking effective for overcoming some serious emotional matters or for providing social adaptation (Dalton, Sargent, Beach, Bernhardt, & Stevens, 1999).…”

Vulnerability and self-perceived health status among light and heavy smokers: the relationship to short-term fear appeal tobacco control messages

“…As already noted by several authors, stimuli provided by gain-framed messages would have probably motivated less addicted smokers to start thinking about changing current behavior by trading something that provides pleasure ("gain") for something that gives just as much or more pleasure at a lower cost or risk 12,14 .…”

“…The former is a phenomenon known as "optimistic bias" 25,26,27,28 and can be observed in Table 3 among smokers who did not rate their health status as fair or poor, i.e., those who probably were not stimulated to perceive an impending risk, but who possibly considered that the health warning pictures were relevant and could help other smokers (who probably experienced that problem) to seek help. Specifically regarding tobacco control messages involving warning pictures related to more objective issues, i.e., those more subject to vulnerabilities and daily losses like shortness of breath and being bothered by cigarette addiction, which apply to both male and female, and younger and older smokers 14,29 , there was a greater awareness of these issues among heavy smokers. This awareness was based on either a perception of a distant (but existent) risk -among heavy smokers with at least good self-perceived health status -or the identification with a current and relevant personal problem -among heavy smokers with fair or poor self-perceived health status.…”

“…individuals who are more susceptible or vulnerable) may be more sensitive to daily-loss fear appeal messages than young individuals who are out to discover life and always obtain, for example, new and greater gains 9,10,11,12 . In fact, some authors have found that positive messages linked to the logic of pos-sible gains and lower stimulus for fear may find a more fertile ground for interaction with more optimistic and "invulnerable" individuals 13 , such as less nicotine dependent smokers 14,15,16 .…”