Plastics, General Survey

Abstract

The article contains sections titled: 1. Introduction 1.1. Polymers 1.1.1. Fundamental Terms 1.1.2. Nomenclature 1.2. Plastics 1.2.1. Fundamental Terms 1.2.2. Designations 1.3. History of Plastics 1.4. Economic Importance 2. Molecular Structure of Polymers 2.1. Constitution 2.1.1. Homopolymers 2.1.2. Copolymers 2.1.3. Branched Polymers 2.1.4. Ordered Chain Assemblies 2.1.5. Unordered Networks 2.2. Molar Masses and Molar Mass Distributions 2.2.1. Molar Mass Average 2.2.2. Determination of Molar Mass 2.2.3. Molar Mass Distributions 2.2.4. Determination of Molar Mass Distributions 2.3. Configurations 2.4. Conformations 2.4.1. Microconformations 2.4.2. Conformations in Ideal Polymer Crystals 2.4.3. Conformations in Polymer Solutions 2.4.4. Unperturbed Coils 2.4.5. Perturbed Coils 2.4.6. Wormlike Chains 3. Polymer Manufacture 3.1. Raw Materials 3.1.1. Wood 3.1.2. Coal 3.1.3. Natural Gas 3.1.4. Petroleum 3.1.5. Other Natural Raw Materials 3.2. Polymer Syntheses: Overview 3.2.1. Classifications 3.2.2. Functionality 3.2.3. Cyclopolymerizations 3.3. Chain Polymerizations and Polyeliminations 3.3.1. Thermodynamics 3.3.2. Free‐Radical Polymerizations 3.3.3. Anionic Polymerizations 3.3.4. Cationic Polymerizations 3.3.5. Ziegler–Natta Polymerizations 3.3.6. Copolymerizations 3.4. Polycondensations and Polyadditions 3.4.1. Bifunctional Polycondensations 3.4.2. Multifunctional Polycondensations 3.4.3. Polyaddition 3.5. Polymer Reactions 3.5.1. Polymer Transformations 3.5.2. Block and Graft Formations 3.5.3. Cross‐Linking Reactions 3.5.4. Degradation Reactions 4. Plastics Manufacture 4.1. Homogenization and Compounding 4.2. Additives 4.2.1. Overview 4.2.2. Chemofunctional Additives 4.2.3. Processing Aids 4.2.4. Extending and Reinforcing Fillers 4.2.5. Plasticizers 4.2.6. Colorants 4.2.7. Blowing Agents 4.3. Processing 5. Supermolecular Structures 5.1. Noncrystalline States 5.1.1. Structure 5.1.2. Orientation 5.2. Polymer Crystals 5.2.1. Introduction 5.2.2. Crystal Structures 5.2.3. Crystallinity 5.2.4. Morphology 5.3. Mesophases 5.3.1. Introduction 5.3.2. Types of Liquid Crystals 5.3.3. Mesogens 5.3.4. Lyotropic Liquid Crystalline Polymers 5.3.5. Thermotropic Liquid Crystal Polymers 5.3.6. Block Copolymers 5.3.7. Ionomers 5.4. Gels 5.5. Polymer Surfaces 5.5.1. Structure 5.5.2. Interfacial Tension 5.5.3. Adsorption 6. Thermal Properties 6.1. Molecular Motion 6.1.1. Thermal Expansion 6.1.2. Heat Capacity 6.1.3. Heat Conductivity 6.2. Thermal Transitions and Relaxations 6.2.1. Overview 6.2.2. Crystallization

Phylogenetic Distribution of Plastic-Degrading Microorganisms

“…It may be the case that some studies inadvertently reported the degradation of polymer additives rather than the degradation of the plastic polymer itself. However, it is important to note that when considering all plastic types but PVC, additives average just 4.5% of the total weight of plastics, and some plastic types such as films for food packaging may contain no additives (77).…”

Phylogenetic Distribution of Plastic-Degrading Microorganisms

“…It may be the case that some studies inadvertently reported the degradation of polymer additives rather than the degradation of the plastic polymer itself. However, it is important to note that when considering all plastic types but PVC, additives average just 4.5% of the total weight of plastics, and some plastic types such as films for food packaging may contain no additives (77).…”

Graphene and related two-dimensional materials: Structure-property relationships for electronics and optoelectronics

“…The breakthrough of science and technology in 2D materials has been extended for the past decade, bringing together the community of scientists and engineers. 389,390 Although the fundamental research of structure-property relationships of 2D materials for electronics and optoelectronics has made rapid progress, the killer applications and niche markets still seem to face great challenges ahead. Learn from the success of Si's story: Si-based technology has been dominant in the semiconductor industry since the end of the 1950s although Si is a mediocre material.…”

Made to measure: Easy Synthesis and Characterization of Nanocomposites with Tailored Functionalities for Chemistry Education

“…By skillfully embedding the silver nano-additives, a depot effect with long, continuous material release can be achieved, which offers advantages over a simple coating in terms of stability [7,8]. An overview with many more information and examples can be found in [9].…”

Phylogenetic Distribution of Plastic-Degrading Microorganisms

“…It may be the case that some studies inadvertently reported the degradation of polymer additives rather than the degradation of the plastic polymer itself. However, it is important to note that when considering all plastic types but PVC, additives average just 4.5% of the total weight of plastics, and some plastic types such as films for food packaging may contain no additives (77).…”

Graphene and related two-dimensional materials: Structure-property relationships for electronics and optoelectronics

“…The breakthrough of science and technology in 2D materials has been extended for the past decade, bringing together the community of scientists and engineers. 389,390 Although the fundamental research of structure-property relationships of 2D materials for electronics and optoelectronics has made rapid progress, the killer applications and niche markets still seem to face great challenges ahead. Learn from the success of Si's story: Si-based technology has been dominant in the semiconductor industry since the end of the 1950s although Si is a mediocre material.…”

Made to measure: Easy Synthesis and Characterization of Nanocomposites with Tailored Functionalities for Chemistry Education

“…By skillfully embedding the silver nano-additives, a depot effect with long, continuous material release can be achieved, which offers advantages over a simple coating in terms of stability [7,8]. An overview with many more information and examples can be found in [9].…”

Phylogenetic Distribution of Plastic-Degrading Microorganisms

“…It may be the case that some studies inadvertently reported the degradation of polymer additives rather than the degradation of the plastic polymer itself. However, it is important to note that when considering all plastic types but PVC, additives average just 4.5% of the total weight of plastics, and some plastic types such as films for food packaging may contain no additives (77).…”

Graphene and related two-dimensional materials: Structure-property relationships for electronics and optoelectronics

“…The breakthrough of science and technology in 2D materials has been extended for the past decade, bringing together the community of scientists and engineers. 389,390 Although the fundamental research of structure-property relationships of 2D materials for electronics and optoelectronics has made rapid progress, the killer applications and niche markets still seem to face great challenges ahead. Learn from the success of Si's story: Si-based technology has been dominant in the semiconductor industry since the end of the 1950s although Si is a mediocre material.…”

Made to measure: Easy Synthesis and Characterization of Nanocomposites with Tailored Functionalities for Chemistry Education

“…By skillfully embedding the silver nano-additives, a depot effect with long, continuous material release can be achieved, which offers advantages over a simple coating in terms of stability [7,8]. An overview with many more information and examples can be found in [9].…”