Photovoltaic manufacturing: Present status, future prospects, and research needs

Abstract

In May 2010 the United States National Science Foundation sponsored a two-day workshop to review the state-of-the-art and research challenges in photovoltaic (PV) manufacturing. This article summarizes the major conclusions and outcomes from this workshop, which was focused on identifying the science that needs to be done to help accelerate PV manufacturing. A significant portion of the article focuses on assessing the current status of and future opportunities in the major PV manufacturing technologies. These are solar cells based on crystalline silicon (c-Si), thin films of cadmium telluride (CdTe), thin films of copper indium gallium diselenide, and thin films of hydrogenated amorphous and nanocrystalline silicon. Current trends indicate that the cost per watt of c-Si and CdTe solar cells are being reduced to levels beyond the constraints commonly associated with these technologies. With a focus on TW/yr production capacity, the issue of material availability is discussed along with the emerging technologies of dye-sensitized solar cells and organic photovoltaics that are potentially less constrained by elemental abundance. Lastly, recommendations are made for research investment, with an emphasis on those areas that are expected to have cross-cutting impact.

Performance of Photovoltaics Under Actual Operating Conditions

“…The first PV devices of copper chalcopyrite appeared in 1976 (Kazmerski et al, 1976) and since then it was not until the early 1990s that rapid improvements increased efficiencies to over 16 % (Gabor et al, 1994). Even though the commercial production of CIGS began in 2007, there are now a number of companies with 10 -30 MW/year capacities (Wolden et al, 2011). Efficiencies continued to improve exceeding the 20 % threshold and establishing this technology as the efficiency leader amongst existing thin-film technologies.…”

“…Amongst the many thin-film technologies some of the most promising are CdTe, a-Si, micromorph tandem cells (a-Si/μc-Si) and CIGS. The rapid growth and importance of thin-film PV is further highlighted by the fact that the world's first PV manufacturer to exceed the 1 GW/year production rate and hence to capture 13 % of the global market was First Solar, a manufacturer of thin-film CdTe modules, in 2009 (Wolden et al, 2011). Specifically, CdTe has grown from a 2 % market share in 2005 to 13 % in 2010 (EPIA & Greenpeace, 2011).…”

Comparative alternative materials assessment to screen toxicity hazards in the life cycle of CIGS thin film photovoltaics

“…Energy conversion efficiencies for copper-indium-gallium-selenium-sulfide (CIGS) solar cells (found within solar panels) of greater than 19% have already been achieved, making CIGS a feasible solar material for future industrial competition with the incumbent mono-and polycrystalline silicon-based solar cell technologies [2,3]. CIGS solar cells are comprised of nanometer to micrometer thick layers of materials deposited during manufacture.…”

Multiwavelength excitation Raman scattering study of polycrystalline kesterite Cu2ZnSnS4 thin films

“…[http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4861593] Polycrystalline kesterite Cu 2 ZnSnS 4 (CZTS) thin films have recently drawn much attention as being a promising candidate as an absorber layer in solar cell technologies, [1][2][3] and devices have already reached a conversion efficiency of 11.1% (Ref. 4) based on the related Cu 2 ZnSn(S,Se) 4 compound.…”