Lignocellulosic
biomass is the most abundant organic carbon source
and has received a great deal of interest as renewable and sustainable
feedstock for the production of potential biofuels and value-added
chemicals with a wide range of designed catalytic systems. However,
those natural polymeric materials are composed of short-chain monomers
(typically C6 and C5 sugars) and complex lignin
molecules containing plenty of oxygen, resulting in products during
the downstream processing having low-grade fuel properties or limited
applications in organic syntheses. Accordingly, approaches to increase
the carbon-chain length or carbon atom number have been developed
as crucial catalytic routes for upgrading biomass into energy-intensive
fuels and chemicals. The primary focus of this review is to systematically
describe the recent examples on the selective synthesis of long-chain
oxygenates via different C–C coupling catalytic processes,
such as Aldol condensation, hydroalkylation/alkylation, oligomerization,
ketonization, Diels–Alder, Guerbet, and acylation reactions.
Other integrated reaction steps including, for example, hydrolysis,
dehydration, oxidation, partial hydrogenation, and hydrodeoxygenation
(HDO) to derive corresponding key intermediates or final products
are also reviewed. The effects of catalyst structure/type and reaction
parameters on the catalytic performance along with relevant reaction
mechanisms are in detail discussed. Apart from this, the formation
of other useful compounds containing C–X bonds (X = O, N, and
S) derived from biomass-based substrates for producing fuel additives
and valuable chemicals is also briefly reviewed.