Oil Refining

Abstract

The article contains sections titled: 1. Introduction 1.1. History 1.2. General Aspects of Oil Refining 2. Crude Oils and Products 2.1. Crude Oil Constituents 2.2. Classification of Crude Oils 2.3. Oil Products 2.3.1. Gas Fuels 2.3.2. Liquid Fuels 2.3.3. Nonfuel Applications 3. Oil Refining Processes 3.1. Crude Oil Distillation 3.1.1. Atmospheric Distillation 3.1.2. Vacuum Distillation 3.1.3. Crude Oil Desalting 3.2. Catalytic Cracking (Cat Cracking) 3.3. Hydrotreating 3.3.1. Distillate Hydrotreating 3.3.2. Pyrolysis Gasoline Hydrotreating 3.4. Catalytic Reforming 3.4.1. Introduction 3.4.2. Semiregenerative Reformer 3.4.3. Fully Regenerative Reformer 3.4.4. Continuously Regenerative Reformer 3.5. Hydrocracking 3.6. Residue Conversion Processes 3.6.1. Introduction 3.6.2. Fundamentals of Residue Conversion and Process Options 3.6.3. Hydrogen Addition (“H‐in”) Processes 3.6.3.1. Residue Hydrotreating (Demetallization, Desulfurization, Denitrification) 3.6.3.2. Residue Hydrocracking (Hydroconversion) 3.6.4. Carbon Rejection (“C‐out”) Processes 3.6.4.1. Thermal Processes (Visbreaking, Coking) 3.6.4.2. Catalytic Processes (Residue Cat Cracking) 3.6.5. Other Processes 3.6.5.1. Extraction of Asphaltenes 3.6.5.2. Partial Oxidation 3.6.6. Process Combinations 3.7. Gasoline Upgrading Processes 3.7.1. Alkylation 3.7.2. Polymerization 3.7.3. Isomerization 3.7.4 Production of Ethers (MTBE; ETBE) 3.8. Other Processes 3.8.1. Gas Treating 3.8.2. Sulfur Recovery 3.9. Catalysts 4. Environmental Protection in Oil Refining 4.1. Introduction 4.2. Manufacturing Emissions 4.2.1. Hydrocarbons (HC) 4.2.1.1. Hydrocarbons in Air 4.2.1.2. Hydrocarbons in Wastewater 4.2.1.3. Hydrocarbons in Soil and Groundwater 4.2.2. Sulfur and Nitrogen Compounds 4.2.2.1. Sulfur Compounds 4.2.2.2. Nitrogen Compounds 4.2.3. Noise 4.3. Consumer Related Emissions 4.3.1. Transportation Fuels 4.3.1.1. Motor Gasoline 4.3.1.2. Diesel Fuel 4.3.1.3. Marine Fuels 4.3.2. Fuels for Heat Generation 4.4. Cost of Environmental Conservation 5. Integrated Refinery Models 5.1. Trends of Refinery Structures 5.2. Hydroskimming Refinery 5.3. Conversion Concepts 5.3.1. Cat Cracking ‐ Visbreaking Refinery 5.3.2. Hydrocracking ‐ Cat Cracking Refinery 5.3.3. Hydrocracking ‐ Coking Refinery 5.3.4. Integration of Existing Refineries 6. Corrosion and Materials 7. Testing and Analysis 7.1. Crude Oil and Product Properties 7.2. Testing Methods and Standards 8. Storage and Transport

Environmental Benefits of Circular Ethylene Production from Polymer Waste

“…Four other indicators, i.e., freshwater ecotoxicity (99%), fossil resources use (100%), land use (87%), and ozone depletion (100%), also show a high likelihood of impact reduction when deploying CPR instead of LPR. Indeed, these four categories are heavily affected by naphtha production, notably by the onshore extraction of fossil fuels, which uses land to create wells 60 (Figure S7), and involves refinery operations that generate a significant amount of water discharge, 60 affecting freshwater toxicity (Figure S6). Moreover, petroleum extraction by definition depletes fossil resources, and the process emits ozone-depleting substances 60 (Figures S8 and S9).…”

“…Four other indicators, i.e., freshwater ecotoxicity (99%), fossil resources use (100%), land use (87%), and ozone depletion (100%), also show a high likelihood of impact reduction when deploying CPR instead of LPR. Indeed, these four categories are heavily affected by naphtha production, notably by the onshore extraction of fossil fuels, which uses land to create wells 60 ( Figure S7 ), and involves refinery operations that generate a significant amount of water discharge, 60 affecting freshwater toxicity ( Figure S6 ). Moreover, petroleum extraction by definition depletes fossil resources, and the process emits ozone-depleting substances 60 ( Figures S8 and S9 ).…”

Environmental Benefits of Circular Ethylene Production from Polymer Waste

“…Four other indicators, i.e., freshwater ecotoxicity (99%), fossil resources use (100%), land use (87%), and ozone depletion (100%), also show a high likelihood of impact reduction when deploying CPR instead of LPR. Indeed, these four categories are heavily affected by naphtha production, notably by the onshore extraction of fossil fuels, which uses land to create wells 60 (Figure S7), and involves refinery operations that generate a significant amount of water discharge, 60 affecting freshwater toxicity (Figure S6). Moreover, petroleum extraction by definition depletes fossil resources, and the process emits ozone-depleting substances 60 (Figures S8 and S9).…”

“…Four other indicators, i.e., freshwater ecotoxicity (99%), fossil resources use (100%), land use (87%), and ozone depletion (100%), also show a high likelihood of impact reduction when deploying CPR instead of LPR. Indeed, these four categories are heavily affected by naphtha production, notably by the onshore extraction of fossil fuels, which uses land to create wells 60 ( Figure S7 ), and involves refinery operations that generate a significant amount of water discharge, 60 affecting freshwater toxicity ( Figure S6 ). Moreover, petroleum extraction by definition depletes fossil resources, and the process emits ozone-depleting substances 60 ( Figures S8 and S9 ).…”

Towards sustainable fuels: Nano‐catalysts for hydrodeoxygenation to green diesel

“…Popov et al 198 conducted an experiment on the adsorption of phenols on SiO 2 to study the association of low content of acidity and coke formation for SiO 2 , the results concluded that only 12% adsorption of phenol on SiO 2 surface occurred at around 400 C. Contrary to the idea that suggests that phenolic compounds mostly cooperate with SiO 2 through hydrogen bonds, detached entities were intensely adsorbed on Al 2 O 3 acid sites. An additional conducted study found that interactions between the supports for Ni/Al 2 O 3 and Ni/AC led to less deoxygenation than those between Ni/SiO 2 and supports at operating conditions of 180-220 C temperature and 5-30 bar H 2 pressure 199. As supports for HDO catalysts, high acidity micro and mesoporous materials have also been used, with examples being silicates with alumina doping and hierarchical zeolites.…”

Biocatalyst discovery and design for plastics deconstruction: A multi‐scale perspective

“…This strategy is analogous to crude oil refining, where distillation separates components for targeted downstream processing. 49 Independent of additives, plastics within a resin code share backbone chemistry but differ in physical structure due to variations in chain architecture. 34,35,50,51 Branching density, branch length, and molecular weight drive chain packing and subsequently crystallinity, which in turn affect enzyme accessibility.…”

“…Isolating the polymer allows subsequent processing steps to focus on pure polymer chains, enabling the use of standardized enzymatic treatments across resin codes. This strategy is analogous to crude oil refining, where distillation separates components for targeted downstream processing 49 …”

Environmental Benefits of Circular Ethylene Production from Polymer Waste

“…Four other indicators, i.e., freshwater ecotoxicity (99%), fossil resources use (100%), land use (87%), and ozone depletion (100%), also show a high likelihood of impact reduction when deploying CPR instead of LPR. Indeed, these four categories are heavily affected by naphtha production, notably by the onshore extraction of fossil fuels, which uses land to create wells 60 (Figure S7), and involves refinery operations that generate a significant amount of water discharge, 60 affecting freshwater toxicity (Figure S6). Moreover, petroleum extraction by definition depletes fossil resources, and the process emits ozone-depleting substances 60 (Figures S8 and S9).…”

“…Four other indicators, i.e., freshwater ecotoxicity (99%), fossil resources use (100%), land use (87%), and ozone depletion (100%), also show a high likelihood of impact reduction when deploying CPR instead of LPR. Indeed, these four categories are heavily affected by naphtha production, notably by the onshore extraction of fossil fuels, which uses land to create wells 60 ( Figure S7 ), and involves refinery operations that generate a significant amount of water discharge, 60 affecting freshwater toxicity ( Figure S6 ). Moreover, petroleum extraction by definition depletes fossil resources, and the process emits ozone-depleting substances 60 ( Figures S8 and S9 ).…”

Towards sustainable fuels: Nano‐catalysts for hydrodeoxygenation to green diesel

“…Popov et al 198 conducted an experiment on the adsorption of phenols on SiO 2 to study the association of low content of acidity and coke formation for SiO 2 , the results concluded that only 12% adsorption of phenol on SiO 2 surface occurred at around 400 C. Contrary to the idea that suggests that phenolic compounds mostly cooperate with SiO 2 through hydrogen bonds, detached entities were intensely adsorbed on Al 2 O 3 acid sites. An additional conducted study found that interactions between the supports for Ni/Al 2 O 3 and Ni/AC led to less deoxygenation than those between Ni/SiO 2 and supports at operating conditions of 180-220 C temperature and 5-30 bar H 2 pressure 199. As supports for HDO catalysts, high acidity micro and mesoporous materials have also been used, with examples being silicates with alumina doping and hierarchical zeolites.…”

Biocatalyst discovery and design for plastics deconstruction: A multi‐scale perspective

“…This strategy is analogous to crude oil refining, where distillation separates components for targeted downstream processing. 49 Independent of additives, plastics within a resin code share backbone chemistry but differ in physical structure due to variations in chain architecture. 34,35,50,51 Branching density, branch length, and molecular weight drive chain packing and subsequently crystallinity, which in turn affect enzyme accessibility.…”

“…Isolating the polymer allows subsequent processing steps to focus on pure polymer chains, enabling the use of standardized enzymatic treatments across resin codes. This strategy is analogous to crude oil refining, where distillation separates components for targeted downstream processing 49 …”

Environmental Benefits of Circular Ethylene Production from Polymer Waste

“…Four other indicators, i.e., freshwater ecotoxicity (99%), fossil resources use (100%), land use (87%), and ozone depletion (100%), also show a high likelihood of impact reduction when deploying CPR instead of LPR. Indeed, these four categories are heavily affected by naphtha production, notably by the onshore extraction of fossil fuels, which uses land to create wells 60 (Figure S7), and involves refinery operations that generate a significant amount of water discharge, 60 affecting freshwater toxicity (Figure S6). Moreover, petroleum extraction by definition depletes fossil resources, and the process emits ozone-depleting substances 60 (Figures S8 and S9).…”

“…Four other indicators, i.e., freshwater ecotoxicity (99%), fossil resources use (100%), land use (87%), and ozone depletion (100%), also show a high likelihood of impact reduction when deploying CPR instead of LPR. Indeed, these four categories are heavily affected by naphtha production, notably by the onshore extraction of fossil fuels, which uses land to create wells 60 ( Figure S7 ), and involves refinery operations that generate a significant amount of water discharge, 60 affecting freshwater toxicity ( Figure S6 ). Moreover, petroleum extraction by definition depletes fossil resources, and the process emits ozone-depleting substances 60 ( Figures S8 and S9 ).…”

Towards sustainable fuels: Nano‐catalysts for hydrodeoxygenation to green diesel

“…Popov et al 198 conducted an experiment on the adsorption of phenols on SiO 2 to study the association of low content of acidity and coke formation for SiO 2 , the results concluded that only 12% adsorption of phenol on SiO 2 surface occurred at around 400 C. Contrary to the idea that suggests that phenolic compounds mostly cooperate with SiO 2 through hydrogen bonds, detached entities were intensely adsorbed on Al 2 O 3 acid sites. An additional conducted study found that interactions between the supports for Ni/Al 2 O 3 and Ni/AC led to less deoxygenation than those between Ni/SiO 2 and supports at operating conditions of 180-220 C temperature and 5-30 bar H 2 pressure 199. As supports for HDO catalysts, high acidity micro and mesoporous materials have also been used, with examples being silicates with alumina doping and hierarchical zeolites.…”

Biocatalyst discovery and design for plastics deconstruction: A multi‐scale perspective

“…This strategy is analogous to crude oil refining, where distillation separates components for targeted downstream processing. 49 Independent of additives, plastics within a resin code share backbone chemistry but differ in physical structure due to variations in chain architecture. 34,35,50,51 Branching density, branch length, and molecular weight drive chain packing and subsequently crystallinity, which in turn affect enzyme accessibility.…”

“…Isolating the polymer allows subsequent processing steps to focus on pure polymer chains, enabling the use of standardized enzymatic treatments across resin codes. This strategy is analogous to crude oil refining, where distillation separates components for targeted downstream processing 49 …”