Occurrence of Aflatoxins in Edible Vegetable Seeds and Oil Samples Available in Pakistani Retail Markets and Estimation of Dietary Intake in Consumers

Abstract

Aflatoxins (AFs) are secondary metabolites toxic to humans as well as animals. The environmental conditions, conventional agricultural practices, and illiteracy are the main factors which favor the production of AFs in food and feed. In the current study 744 samples of vegetable seeds and oils (soybean, sunflower, canola, olive, corn, and mustard) were collected and tested for the presence of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and total AFs. Liquid-liquid extraction was employed for the extraction of AFs from seeds and oil samples. Reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography equipped with fluorescence detection was used for the analysis. The results have shown that 92 (56.7%) samples of imported and 108 (57.0%) samples of local edible seeds were observed to be contaminated with AFs. All samples of edible seeds have AFB1 levels greater than the proposed limit set by the European Union (EU, 2 µg/kg) and 12 (7.40%) samples of imported seeds and 14 (7.40%) samples of local seeds were found in the range ≥ 50 µg/kg. About 78 (43.3%) samples of imported edible oil and 103 (48.3%) sample of local edible oil were observed to be positive for AFs. Furthermore, 16 (8.88%) and six (3.33%) samples of imported vegetable oil have levels of total AFs in a range (21–50 µg/kg) and greater than 50 µg/kg, respectively. The findings indicate significant differences in AFs levels between imported and local vegetable oil samples (t = 22.27 and p = 0.009) at α = 0.05 and a significant difference in AFs levels were found between vegetable seeds and oil samples (t = −17.75, p = 0.009) at α = 0.05. The highest dietary intake was found for a local sunflower oil sample (0.90 µg/kg/day) in female individuals (16–22 age group). The results have shown considerably high levels of AFB1 and total AFs in seeds and oil samples and emphasise the need to monitor carefully the levels of these toxic substances in food and feed on regular basis.

Determination of Multiple Mycotoxins and Their Natural Occurrence in Edible Vegetable Oils Using Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry

“…AFs and ZEA were found in sunflower oils in China and Tanzania [11,24]. In Pakistan, AFB1 contamination was found in soybean, corn, sunflower, and olive oils from imported and local samples [25].…”

Aflatoxin Occurrence, Contamination, Detection, and Decontamination with Special Emphasis on Coconut Oil: A Review

“…Edible plant oils like maize oil, olive oil, peanut oil, sunflower oil, and coconut oil are highly abundant and popular globally, as they are an important dietary source of everyday nutrition. Inappropriate practices in different stages of edible plant oil production such as packaging, transportation, and storage, could encourage mold growth resulting in mycotoxin contaminations in oils (Waqas et al, 2021). In addition, owing to the novel industrial processes, agricultural practices, climatic changes, and environmental pollution, new toxic residues in oil have been increasing (Farré and Barceló, 2013).…”

Low Dose of Deoxynivalenol Aggravates Intestinal Inflammation and Barrier Dysfunction Induced by Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli Infection through Activating Macroautophagy/NLRP3 Inflammasomes

“…Mycotoxins, the culprit of mycotoxicosis, are widely distributed in various feed materials and products, which seriously harm human and animal health. Humans have a wide range of opportunities to ingest mycotoxins and develop related diseases. , Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the most common mycotoxins. Studies have shown that 96.4% of feed samples were contaminated with DON in China, and DON-derivative deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside was detected in 94% of wheat samples in Argentina. , DON and its derivatives were also determined in human food. , DON has been extensively studied for its toxicity and mechanism.…”

“…Humans have a wide range of opportunities to ingest mycotoxins and develop related diseases. 1,2 Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the most common mycotoxins. Studies have shown that 96.4% of feed samples were contaminated with DON in China, and DONderivative deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside was detected in 94% of wheat samples in Argentina.…”