North American Snake Envenomation in the Dog and Cat

Gilliam, Lyndi L.; Brunker, Jill D.

doi:10.1016/j.cvsm.2011.08.008

Cited by 31 publications

(68 citation statements)

References 33 publications

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“…Snake envenoming in people and animals is a common occurrence in many countries across the world, especially in rural areas, and is classified as a true medical emergency . Snake venom contains hundreds of enzymes, proteins, and peptides that assist the snake in paralyzing, killing, and digesting its prey or to defend itself against predators . These venom components can be classified into procoagulants, anticoagulants, fibrinolytic toxins, vessel wall interactive toxins, toxins that affect platelet activity and plasma protein activators .…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…[1][2][3][4] Snake venom contains hundreds of enzymes, proteins, and peptides that assist the snake in paralyzing, killing, and digesting its prey or to defend itself against predators. 3,[5][6][7] These venom components can be classified into procoagulants, anticoagulants, fibrinolytic toxins, vessel wall interactive toxins, toxins that affect platelet activity and plasma protein activators. 8 These not only destroy tissues, but can also evoke a significant inflammatory response through cytokine release in the victim.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Hemostatic analysis of dogs naturally envenomed by the African puffadder (Bitis arietans) and snouted cobra (Naja annulifera)

Nagel

Schoeman

Thompson³

et al. 2014

J Vet Emergen Crit Care

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Objective -To investigate hemostatic changes in dogs envenomed by cytotoxic (African puffadder) and neurotoxic snakes (snouted cobra) using thromboelastography (TEG) and plasma-based coagulation assays. Design -Prospective observational clinical study. Setting -University teaching hospital. Animals -Eighteen client-owned dogs; 9 envenomed by African puffadder (Bitis arietans) and 9 by snouted cobra (Naja annulifera). Ten healthy dogs served as controls. Interventions -None. Measurements and Main Results -Blood was collected at presentation and 24 hours post envenomation. Platelet count, TEG, prothrombin time, activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), antithrombin activity, and fibrinogen (Fib) and C-reactive protein (CRP) concentrations were measured. Outcomes were analyzed using linear mixed models at 5% significance. At presentation, R time was significantly prolonged in the puffadder group compared to the cobra (P = 0.01) and control groups (P = 0.05). Platelet count was significantly lower in the puffadder compared to the cobra (P = 0.04) and control groups (P = 0.001), respectively. Antithrombin activity was significantly decreased in the puffadder (P = 0.002) and cobra groups (P = 0.004) compared to the control group. Both prothrombin time and activated partial thromboplastin time were significantly prolonged in the cobra group compared to the control group (P = 0.03 for both). The TEG variables, maximum amplitude (MA) and G, were significantly increased 24 hours post envenomation in the puffadder group compared to their values at presentation (P = 0.05 for both). Fib and CRP concentrations were significantly increased 24 hours post envenomation in both snake-envenomed groups. Conclusions -Prolonged clot initiation was a common feature in puffadder-envenomed dogs at presentation and this was likely venom induced. Snouted cobra-envenomed dogs were normo-to hypercoagulable at presentation. Dogs from both puffadder and cobra groups progressed to a more hypercoagulable by 24 hours post envenomation, most likely due to marked inflammation as indicated by the increased Fib and CRP concentrations. TEG proved a sensitive tool for detecting abnormal hemostasis in snake-envenomed dogs.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Hemostatic analysis of dogs naturally envenomed by the African puffadder (Bitis arietans) and snouted cobra (Naja annulifera)

Nagel

Schoeman

Thompson³

et al. 2014

J Vet Emergen Crit Care

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“…The most commonly observed clinical manifestations of renal abnormalities after snake envenomation in humans and dogs are acute kidney injury (AKI), proteinuria and hematuria (Sitprija, 2006;Kanjanabuch and Sitprija, 2008;Goddard et al, 2011) The majority of studies and reports of snake envenomation in dogs have focused on routine serum analyses and only to some extent on urinalysis (Heller et al, 2007;Lervik et al, 2010;Gilliam and Brunker, 2011;Sutton et al, 2011). Nevertheless, these parameters are nonspecific and insensitive as they are only altered at the point when about 50 -75% of renal function is already lost (Finco, 1997).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…However, in the United States envenomation has been recently estimated to affect 150,000 dogs and cats per year (Gilliam and Brunker, 2011) and in the United Kingdom, 0.7% of the calls to Veterinary Poisonous Information Services were reported to be related to snake envenomation events (Sutton et al, 2011). Mortality of dogs secondary to snake envenomation in different parts of the world has been reported to be from 1 -5% (Lervik et al, 2010;Gilliam and Brunker, 2011;Sutton et al, 2011) and as high as 30% (Gilliam and Brunker, 2011).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Evaluation of snake envenomation-induced renal dysfunction in dogs using early urinary biomarkers of nephrotoxicity

Hrovat

Schoeman

Laat

et al. 2013

The Veterinary Journal

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Renal dysfunction in dogs envenomed by snakes has mostly been evaluated using routine serum and urine renal markers. Generally, these are not able to detect the renal damage at an early stage and their sensitivity is affected by hemolysis, hematuria and pigmenturia. Selective use of urinary biomarkers can provide early information on severity and stage of renal injury caused by nephrotoxic substances before major decline in renal function occurs. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate venom-induced renal damage using urinary markers of glomerular (urinary albumin (uAlb), immunoglubin G (IgG) and Creactive protein (uCRP)) and proximal tubular dysfunction (urinary retinol binding protein (uRBP)) and compare these markers with routine renal markers (serum urea (BUN) and creatinine (sCr), urinary specific gravity (USG) and urinary protein to creatinine ratio (UPC)).Nineteen dogs envenomed by either neurotoxic or cytotoxic snakes and ten clinically healthy dogs were included in this study. Urinary markers were measured using previously validated commercially available ELISA kits. Among measured routine renal markers a significant difference between snake -envenomed and healthy dogs was noted only in UPC, but in the presence of hematuria and hemoglobinuria, differentiation between prerenal and renal proteinuria was not possible. The urinary biomarkers uAlb, uIgG and uRBP in snakeenvenomed dogs were significantly increased (P<0.05) when compared to healthy dogs at admission, whereas 24 h after envenomation only uCRP was significantly elevated. Using urinary /markers, results of this study showed that snake venom evokes renal dysfunction at the glomerular and tubular region of the nephron.

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“…Not all snake bites result in envenomation. Although there have been no studies conducted in dogs (Armentano and Schaer, ), in humans 20 to 25 per cent of bites by pit vipers are dry bites (Hackett et al, , Gilliam and Brunker, ). This occurs when the victim is bitten but no venom is injected and there are no clinical signs of envenomation.…”

Section: Pathophysiologymentioning

confidence: 99%