Nanocelluloses: Sources, Pretreatment, Isolations, Modification, and Its Application as the Drug Carriers

Abstract

The ‘Back-to-nature’ concept has currently been adopted intensively in various industries, especially the pharmaceutical industry. In the past few decades, the overuse of synthetic chemicals has caused severe damage to the environment and ecosystem. One class of natural materials developed to substitute artificial chemicals in the pharmaceutical industries is the natural polymers, including cellulose and its derivatives. The development of nanocelluloses as nanocarriers in drug delivery systems has reached an advanced stage. Cellulose nanofiber (CNF), nanocrystal cellulose (NCC), and bacterial nanocellulose (BC) are the most common nanocellulose used as nanocarriers in drug delivery systems. Modification and functionalization using various processes and chemicals have been carried out to increase the adsorption and drug delivery performance of nanocellulose. Nanocellulose may be attached to the drug by physical interaction or chemical functionalization for covalent drug binding. Current development of nanocarrier formulations such as surfactant nanocellulose, ultra-lightweight porous materials, hydrogel, polyelectrolytes, and inorganic hybridizations has advanced to enable the construction of stimuli-responsive and specific recognition characteristics. Thus, an opportunity has emerged to develop a new generation of nanocellulose-based carriers that can modulate the drug conveyance for diverse drug characteristics. This review provides insights into selecting appropriate nanocellulose-based hybrid materials and the available modification routes to achieve satisfactory carrier performance and briefly discusses the essential criteria to achieve high-quality nanocellulose.

Bacterial Cellulose (BC) and BC Composites: Production and Properties

“…The following factors primarily determine the structure, physical and mechanical properties of BC: the condition of producer strain cultivation, the method of process realization, the aeration conditions, and the carbon nutrition [2,16,42,49,81].…”

“…applications, especially in biomedical fields. Bacterial nanocellulose, in addition to classical medicine [45,46], tissue engineering [47], and drug delivery [48,49], has great potential for cosmetology [50], food [51], textile and footwear industries [52], and other applications [53]. However, the use of BC depends on the economic feasibility of its production processes.…”

Recent Development and Environmental Applications of Nanocellulose-Based Membranes

“…Figure 3 depicts the amorphous and crystalline domains of nanocellulose in the cellulose fiber. Depending on the amorphous content in the feedstock, production process, and processing conditions, the degree of crystallinity for CNCs varies between 54 to 88% [ 8 , 21 , 44 , 45 ]. CNCs made from H 2 SO 4 treatment have lower crystalline values compared to those made from HCl.…”

“…The hydroxyl group at the sixth position acts as a primary alcohol which is 10 times more reactive than the other hydroxyl groups. The hydroxyl group at the second position is found to be double to that of the third position, of which both serve as secondary alcohols [ 44 , 47 ]. This phenomenon is caused by the steric hindrance of each hydroxyl group, as the hydroxyl group in the sixth position is attached to a carbon atom that is only bonded to one alkyl group, whereas the carbon atom carrying the hydroxyl groups in the second and third positions is bonded to two alkyl groups [ 19 , 48 ].…”

Preparation, Marriage Chemistry and Applications of Graphene Quantum Dots–Nanocellulose Composite: A Brief Review

“…Furthermore, many researchers have also conducted extensive carbohydrate polymer research using cellulose-based nanomaterials. Cellulose is an abundantly available, naturally occurring organic polymer that is composed of repeating units of β-glucopyranose rings that are covalently linked to one another with a β 1-4 glycosidic bond [18,19]. Cellulose nanowhiskers, or nanocellulose, are cellulose particles present in the form of crystals or fibres [20].…”