Mycoplasmas and Their Antibiotic Resistance: The Problems and Prospects in Controlling Infections

Abstract

The present review discusses the problem of controlling mycoplasmas (class Mollicutes), the smallest of self-replicating prokaryotes, parasites of higher eukaryotes, and main contaminants of cell cultures and vaccines. Possible mechanisms for the rapid development of resistance to antimicrobial drugs in mycoplasmas have been analyzed. Omics technologies provide new opportunities for investigating the molecular basis of bacterial adaptation to stress factors and identifying resistomes, the total of all genes and their products contributing to antibiotic resistance in microbes. The data obtained using an integrated approach with post-genomics methods show that antibiotic resistance may be caused by more complex processes than has been believed heretofore. The development of antibiotic resistance in mycoplasmas is associated with essential changes in the genome, proteome, and secretome profiles, which involve many genes and proteins related to fundamental cellular processes and virulence.

The genome structure of ciprofloxacin-resistant Mycoplasma hominis clinical isolates

“…[20]. Многочисленные однонуклеотидные замены в генах gyrA, gyrB, parC и parЕ изолятов M. hominis являют-ся причиной высокого генетического полиморфизма и играют ведущую роль в формировании антибиотикорезистентности, что согласуется с данными [21][22][23].…”

Emerging Antibiotic Resistance in Mycoplasma Microorganisms, Designing Effective and Novel Drugs / Therapeutic Targets: Current Knowledge and Futuristic Prospects

“…These treatments and the antibiotics used however are having fewer efficacies, thus there is a doubt on the efficacy of antibiotic therapy 42 .A very significant instance is the disease contagious caprinepleuropneumonia (CCPP) in India wherein antibiotic therapy (usual) is proven to be a failure ultimately resulting in quick disease spread 43 . Since Mollicutes lack cell wall, hence the cell wall acting antibiotics, such as betalactam antibiotics, glycopeptides, and fosfomycin, do not affect them and also the biological characteristic features of mycoplasmas results in the ineffectiveness of a number of other antimicrobials (sulfonamides, trimethoprim, rifampin, polymyxin, nalidixic acid, linezolid, and some others) 44 . In addition to this use of inappropriate doses of antibiotics and use at large scale in field conditions endangers to the Mycoplasmas have devised a number of resistance mechanisms for combating the antibiotics.…”

“…Due to lack of cell wall mycoplasma have intrinsic resistance to antibiotic classes beta-lactams and to all antimicrobials which target the cell wall 45 . Target alterations and efflux mechanisms are novel acquired resistance mechanisms of mycoplasma developed through genetic mutation or transfer of new genes 44 . Target alterations, in ribosome and in topoisomerase II genes have been found as resistance mechanisms to macrolide and tetracycline and fluoro-quinolone class of antibiotics, respectively 44,45 .…”

“…Target alterations and efflux mechanisms are novel acquired resistance mechanisms of mycoplasma developed through genetic mutation or transfer of new genes 44 . Target alterations, in ribosome and in topoisomerase II genes have been found as resistance mechanisms to macrolide and tetracycline and fluoro-quinolone class of antibiotics, respectively 44,45 . However other mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in mycoplasma need to be explored 46 .…”

“…These include the follow ups for antibiotic sensitivity testing, employing alternativeantibiotics, and alternate therapies. Novel targets are based on proteomics 46,50 , genomics, enzymes 52 or metabolism 53 , besides there are numerous other novel targets which are under investigation 44,47,48,49 and further exploration can help in identifying specific and effective therapeutic and drug targets in future. All these measures will help in preventing antibiotic resistance in mycoplasma, emergence of resistant species, exploring novel targets, safe and effective therapy of mycoplasma diseases in future.…”