Mind or Virtue

Abstract

ABSTRACT-Traditional research on human learning has neglected people's beliefs about learning, the role of culture in shaping those beliefs, and people's consequent learning behavior. Recent research provides evidence that cultural beliefs about learning are essential in influencing individuals' beliefs and their actual learning. This article reviews research on Western learning beliefs, which emphasize the mind, and Chinese learning beliefs, which emphasize personal virtue, as well as on the differences these beliefs produce in people's actual learning. Developmental evidence is also presented to show that the cultural influences begin early. Future research directions are discussed.

Controlling and Autonomy‐Supportive Parenting in the United States and China: Beyond Children's Reports

“…Pomerantz and Wang (2009) speculate that cultural relativism may be particularly prominent in this arena. Controlling parenting may be less detrimental for Chinese (vs. American) children when it is exerted around academics because children's learning is of both greater moral (Li, 2005) and practical importance in China than the United States. Hence, Chinese children may see parents' control in the academic arena as well intentioned, which may reduce its cost.…”

The Role of Mothers' Child‐Based Worth in Their Affective Responses to Children's Performance

“…A key strength of the current research was that mothers in both the United States and China were studied, thereby addressing concerns that samples in psychological research are almost entirely from the West, which may limit the generalizability of the findings (Arnett, 2008;Henrich, Heine, & Norenzayan, 2010). The focus on the United States and China was driven by cultural and societal differences in the emphasis on achievement along with parents' role in supporting it-specifically achievement is of less significance in the United States (vs. China) where parents are also viewed as less responsible for it (e.g., Chao, 1996;Li, 2005;Pomerantz, Ng, & Wang, 2008). In line with such differences, prior analyses of Studies 1 and 2 indicate that American parents base their worth on children's performance less than do their Chinese counterparts (Ng et al, 2014;Ng, Pomerantz, & Lam, 2013).…”

The Mediating Role of Self-Exertion on the Effects of Effort on Learning Virtues and Emotional Distress in Academic Failure in a Confucian Context

“…As pursuit of academic achievement is often viewed as a vertical goal that is expected by their parents, children have little choice but to expend effort to pursue the goal. Thus, academic learning is not an individualized matter but a social obligation (Tao and Hong, 2000, 2014; Li, 2002, 2005; Tseng, 2004; Hau and Ho, 2010). When an individual exerts his utmost effort to study hard academically, he will feel that he has fulfilled his obligation to his parents.…”

“…Central to these East Asian views about learning for self-perfection is the cultivation of one’s virtues and fulfillment of filial obligations to one’s parents (Li, 2002, 2005, 2012). On one hand, an individual needs to improve oneself constantly to possess learning virtues such as diligence, perseverance, and earnestness.…”