Microalgae Xanthophylls: From Biosynthesis Pathway and Production Techniques to Encapsulation Development

Abstract

In the last 20 years, xanthophylls from microalgae have gained increased scientific and industrial interests. This review highlights the essential issues that concern this class of high value compounds. Firstly, their chemical diversity as the producer microorganisms was detailed. Then, the use of conventional and innovative extraction techniques was discussed. Upgraded knowledge on the biosynthetic pathway of the main xanthophylls produced by photosynthetic microorganisms was reviewed in depth, providing new insightful ideas, clarifying the function of these active biomolecules. In addition, the recent advances in encapsulation techniques of astaxanthin and fucoxanthin, such as spray and freeze drying, gelation, emulsification and coacervation were updated. Providing information about these topics and their applications and advances could be a help to students and young researchers who are interested in chemical and metabolic engineering, chemistry and natural products communities to approach the complex thematic of xanthophylls.

Recent Advances in Supercritical CO2 Extraction of Pigments, Lipids and Bioactive Compounds from Microalgae

“…Furthermore, carotenoids can be divided into two categories depending on the presence of oxygen in their structure [ 130 , 131 ]. Xanthophylls, which contain oxygen, have gained significant industrial interest for having antioxidant and conservative properties [ 132 ]. In this group, astaxanthin, lutein and fucoxanthin are included [ 130 , 131 , 132 ].…”

“…Xanthophylls, which contain oxygen, have gained significant industrial interest for having antioxidant and conservative properties [ 132 ]. In this group, astaxanthin, lutein and fucoxanthin are included [ 130 , 131 , 132 ]. Non-oxygen containing carotenoids are called carotenes (e.g., β-carotene) [ 130 , 131 , 132 ].…”

“…In this group, astaxanthin, lutein and fucoxanthin are included [ 130 , 131 , 132 ]. Non-oxygen containing carotenoids are called carotenes (e.g., β-carotene) [ 130 , 131 , 132 ]. Carotenoids can be categorized into primary and secondary depending on their synthesis process [ 130 , 133 ].…”

“…Carotenoids can be categorized into primary and secondary depending on their synthesis process [ 130 , 133 ]. Primary carotenoids are produced during photosynthesis and are crucial for the cell’s viability, while secondary ones are produced when the cell is subdued due to stress, leading to carotenogenesis [ 132 , 133 ]. Factors, such as temperature, pH, salinity, light, nutrients, and the presence of oxidizing substances during cultivation may lead to an enhanced production of primary and secondary carotenoids [ 8 ].…”

Microalgae as a Nutraceutical Tool to Antagonize the Impairment of Redox Status Induced by SNPs: Implications on Insulin Resistance

“…Unlike β-carotene, however, β-cryptoxanthin is not present in many foods, and the richest are squash, persimmons, hot peppers, tangerines, and papaya [ 127 ]. In addition to the foods listed, this carotenoid is also produced in certain microalgae including Pandorina morum and the cyanobacteria Arthrospira platensis [ 142 ]. Violaxanthin (VX) is a carotenoid found mainly in orange-colored fruit, but it also produced in microalgae, for example, Chlorella vulgaris , Nannochloropsis oceanica , and Dunaliella salina [ 144 , 145 ].…”