MDMA: A Review of Epidemiological Data

Abstract

This article reviews recent surveys and reports that provide insight regarding prevalence, frequency, trends, perceptions, and seizures of methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) or "Ecstasy." An estimated 6.4 million individuals have used MDMA. Among students in the eighth, 10th, and 12th grades, MDMA use has substantially increased from mid-1990 levels to 2001, with sharp increases noted in 2000 and a more gradual increase in 2001. Exposure to MDMA among high school seniors has increased progressively and nearly quadrupled over the past decade, and a substantial proportion of young adults report having friends who use MDMA. Perceived availability has increased dramatically during the 1990s, with sharp increases in 2000 and again in 2001 among high school seniors. MDMA is now one of the most available drugs for youth. Among college students and young adults, MDMA use has increased progressively and substantially throughout the 1990s, and sharply increased in 2000. MDMA-related emergency department visits increased progressively and dramatically during the 1990s, often or nearly doubling from year to year. Most visits were attributed to patients ages 25 years or younger. The motive for their MDMA use tended to be recreation, and their reasons for the emergency department visit tended to be overdose and unexpected reactions. MDMA-related deaths are rare, but the rate is increasing, as are the number of MDMA-related calls at selected poison control centers. The quantity of MDMA seized by U.S. law enforcement has increased dramatically recently, as have the number of MDMA-related arrests. MDMA use is worldwide, and in certain European countries it is the second most frequently used drug following marijuana.

A developmental comparison of the neurobehavioral effects of ecstasy (MDMA)

“…More adolescent boys than girls try ecstasy [38,82,136] and this pattern typically continues into adulthood [78]. Women that received equivalent MDMA doses (on a mg/kg basis) as men in a research environment rated their acute subjective experiences, both positive and negative, as more intense then men.…”

“…Ecstasy use is not restricted to limited subpopulations, that is fans of techno music and "raves" [173] or male homosexuals [73,81], as MDMA has expanded into the general population [124,148,170] and especially young people [52,78,170,172]. Over one hundred pregnant women in Toronto called a substance abuse helpline between 1998 and 2000 to inquire Corresponding Author: Brian J. Piper, Neuroscience and Behavior Program, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003-7710, Tel: (413) 545-0996, bpiper@nsm.umass.edu Publisher's Disclaimer: This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication.…”

“…MDMA also causes long term changes in several markers of the integrity of the serotonin (5-HT) neurotransmitter system [58]. There have been several excellent recent reviews on MDMA toxicology, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and neurobehavioral consequences [30,37,113,157], but none have systematically addressed the intricate effects of MDMA during development.Ecstasy use is not restricted to limited subpopulations, that is fans of techno music and "raves" [173] or male homosexuals [73,81], as MDMA has expanded into the general population [124,148,170] and especially young people [52,78,170,172]. Over one hundred pregnant women in Toronto called a substance abuse helpline between 1998 and 2000 to inquire Corresponding Author: Brian J. Piper, Neuroscience and Behavior Program, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003-7710, Tel: (413) 545-0996, bpiper@nsm.umass.edu Publisher's Disclaimer: This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication.…”

Past 12-month and lifetime comorbidity and poly-drug use of ecstasy users among young adults in the United States: Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions

“…Ecstasy use has increased among young people over the past decade in the U.S., peaking in 2001 (Johnston et al, 2007a;Landry, 2002;Martins et al, 2005). Estimates of the current (past-year) prevalence of ecstasy use among young adults in the U.S. and abroad range from 3% to 6%, with lifetime estimates around 10% (Degenhardt et al, 2004;Johnston et al, 2007b;von Sydow et al, 2002;Wu et al, 2006).…”

“…To provide this information, we compared current ecstasy users to former users, other illicit drug users, and nonillicit drug users.Method-Data were gathered in a face-to-face survey of the United States conducted in the 2001-2002. Participants were household and group quarters residents aged 18-29 years (n = 8666).…”