Manganese and Manganese Alloys

Abstract

The article contains sections titled: 1. History 2. Properties 2.1. Physical Properties 2.2. Chemical Properties 3. Occurrence 4. Mining and Beneficiation 5. Reduction of Manganese Oxides 5.1. Manganese ‐ Oxygen System 5.2. Reduction of Manganese Oxides with Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen, and Carbon 5.3. Reduction of Mixed Oxides and Minerals Containing Manganese Oxides 5.4. Reduction of Manganese Oxides by Silicon 5.5. Reduction of Manganese Oxide by Aluminum 6. Production of Manganese‐Containing Ferroalloys 6.1. Production of High‐Carbon Ferromanganese 6.1.1. Production of Ferromanganese in Blast Furnaces 6.1.2. Production of Ferromanganese in Electric Arc Furnaces 6.1.2.1. Design and Operation of Electric Furnaces 6.1.2.2. Raw Materials Required for the Manufacture of High‐Carbon Ferromanganese 6.1.2.3. Chemistry of the Process 6.1.2.4. Discard‐Slag Practice 6.1.2.5. High‐Slag Practice 6.2. Production of Silicomanganese 6.3. Production of Medium‐Carbon Ferromanganese 6.3.1. Production of Medium‐Carbon Ferromanganese by Oxygen Refining of High‐Carbon Ferromanganese 6.3.2. Silicothermic Production of Medium‐Carbon Ferromanganese 6.4. Production of Low‐Carbon Ferromanganese 6.5. Gas Cleaning 6.6. Developments and Future Trends 7. Production of Manganese Metal 7.1. Electrolysis of Aqueous Manganese Salts 7.2. Electrothermal Process 7.3. Aluminothermic Process 7.4. Silicothermic Process 7.5. Distillation of Ferromanganese 7.6. Electrolysis of Fused Salts 8. Manganese as an Alloying Component 8.1. Manganese in the Iron and Steel Industry 8.2. Manganese in Nonferrous Alloys 8.3. Nitrogen‐Containing Manganese Alloys 9. Processing of Manganese Nodules and Encrustations 9.1. Occurrence, Origin, and Composition 9.2. Legal Considerations and Nodule Recovery 9.3. Processing 9.3.1. Gas Reduction and Ammoniacal Leach Process 9.3.2. Cuprion Ammoniacal Leach Process 9.3.3. Elevated Temperature and Pressure H 2 SO 4 Leach Process 9.3.4. Reduction and HCl Leach Process 9.3.5. Smelting and H 2 SO 4 Leach Process 9.4. Economic Viability and Future Prospects 10. Economic Aspects

Surface chemistry and diffusion of trace and alloying elements during in vacuum thermal deoxidation of stainless steel

“…It is known that SiO 2 evaporate at the temperatures upon which Si is observed to disappear, consistent with the direct evaporation of the Si‐oxide 25 . Mn has a high vapor pressure at these temperatures, which would be in favor of the element evaporating 11,26,27 …”

Surface chemistry and diffusion of trace and alloying elements during in vacuum thermal deoxidation of stainless steel

“…It is known that SiO 2 evaporate at the temperatures upon which Si is observed to disappear, consistent with the direct evaporation of the Si‐oxide 25 . Mn has a high vapor pressure at these temperatures, which would be in favor of the element evaporating 11,26,27 …”

Material system analysis: Characterization of flows, stocks, and performance indicators of manganese, nickel, and natural graphite in the EU, 2012–2016

“…The main life cycle phases include exploration of known and estimated reserves, (mine) extraction, processing (e.g., smelting and refining), manufacture (of semi‐finished and finished products), use, end‐of‐life collection, and recycling. Historical information on production and consumption data of the targeted materials in commodities and finished products were gathered from geological bureaus (Minerals Intelligence Network for Europe, 2019; Reichl et al., 2018; USGS, 2015; USGS, 2019), official databases (Eurostat, 2020a, 2020b, 2020c; ProSUM, 2020; UN, 2020), industry statistics and associations reports (IMnI, 2013, 2020; ISSF, 2018; Nickel Institute, 2021a, 2021b; Recharge, 2017; UNEP, 2011; World Steel Association, 2017; Olivetti et al., 2017; BIO by Deloitte, 2015; RPA, 2015; Trinomics, 2018), expert surveys (Mistry & Chhabra, 2019), and the scientific literature (Biswal et al., 2015; Ciacci et al., 2015; Crundwell et al., 2011; Jeong et al., 2009; Matricardi & Downing, 2012; Norgate et al., 2007; Nuss et al., 2014; Passarini et al., 2018; Pauliuk et al., 2013; Reck & Rotter, 2012; Reck et al., 2008; Reidies, 2000; Wellbeloved et al., 2000; Kalyoncu and Taylor, 2014).…”

Life Cycle Environmental Assessment of Lithium-Ion and Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries for Plug-In Hybrid and Battery Electric Vehicles

“…This constitutes an important modeling choice which may significantly impact energy requirements. All three materials are produced from metal salts, which are byproduct or intermediates of hydro-metallurgy. − It is an important characteristic of our inventory that it avoids using metal proxies in lieu of metal salts; none of these ionic metal compounds ever undergo the energy intensive step of being reduced to their neutral form. This contrasts with the production of the NiMH negative electrode, which is based on an alloy of nickel and lanthanum (or lanthanum-rich mischmetal).…”

Surface chemistry and diffusion of trace and alloying elements during in vacuum thermal deoxidation of stainless steel

“…It is known that SiO 2 evaporate at the temperatures upon which Si is observed to disappear, consistent with the direct evaporation of the Si‐oxide 25 . Mn has a high vapor pressure at these temperatures, which would be in favor of the element evaporating 11,26,27 …”

Material system analysis: Characterization of flows, stocks, and performance indicators of manganese, nickel, and natural graphite in the EU, 2012–2016

“…The main life cycle phases include exploration of known and estimated reserves, (mine) extraction, processing (e.g., smelting and refining), manufacture (of semi‐finished and finished products), use, end‐of‐life collection, and recycling. Historical information on production and consumption data of the targeted materials in commodities and finished products were gathered from geological bureaus (Minerals Intelligence Network for Europe, 2019; Reichl et al., 2018; USGS, 2015; USGS, 2019), official databases (Eurostat, 2020a, 2020b, 2020c; ProSUM, 2020; UN, 2020), industry statistics and associations reports (IMnI, 2013, 2020; ISSF, 2018; Nickel Institute, 2021a, 2021b; Recharge, 2017; UNEP, 2011; World Steel Association, 2017; Olivetti et al., 2017; BIO by Deloitte, 2015; RPA, 2015; Trinomics, 2018), expert surveys (Mistry & Chhabra, 2019), and the scientific literature (Biswal et al., 2015; Ciacci et al., 2015; Crundwell et al., 2011; Jeong et al., 2009; Matricardi & Downing, 2012; Norgate et al., 2007; Nuss et al., 2014; Passarini et al., 2018; Pauliuk et al., 2013; Reck & Rotter, 2012; Reck et al., 2008; Reidies, 2000; Wellbeloved et al., 2000; Kalyoncu and Taylor, 2014).…”

Life Cycle Environmental Assessment of Lithium-Ion and Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries for Plug-In Hybrid and Battery Electric Vehicles

“…This constitutes an important modeling choice which may significantly impact energy requirements. All three materials are produced from metal salts, which are byproduct or intermediates of hydro-metallurgy. − It is an important characteristic of our inventory that it avoids using metal proxies in lieu of metal salts; none of these ionic metal compounds ever undergo the energy intensive step of being reduced to their neutral form. This contrasts with the production of the NiMH negative electrode, which is based on an alloy of nickel and lanthanum (or lanthanum-rich mischmetal).…”

Surface chemistry and diffusion of trace and alloying elements during in vacuum thermal deoxidation of stainless steel

“…It is known that SiO 2 evaporate at the temperatures upon which Si is observed to disappear, consistent with the direct evaporation of the Si‐oxide 25 . Mn has a high vapor pressure at these temperatures, which would be in favor of the element evaporating 11,26,27 …”

Material system analysis: Characterization of flows, stocks, and performance indicators of manganese, nickel, and natural graphite in the EU, 2012–2016

“…The main life cycle phases include exploration of known and estimated reserves, (mine) extraction, processing (e.g., smelting and refining), manufacture (of semi‐finished and finished products), use, end‐of‐life collection, and recycling. Historical information on production and consumption data of the targeted materials in commodities and finished products were gathered from geological bureaus (Minerals Intelligence Network for Europe, 2019; Reichl et al., 2018; USGS, 2015; USGS, 2019), official databases (Eurostat, 2020a, 2020b, 2020c; ProSUM, 2020; UN, 2020), industry statistics and associations reports (IMnI, 2013, 2020; ISSF, 2018; Nickel Institute, 2021a, 2021b; Recharge, 2017; UNEP, 2011; World Steel Association, 2017; Olivetti et al., 2017; BIO by Deloitte, 2015; RPA, 2015; Trinomics, 2018), expert surveys (Mistry & Chhabra, 2019), and the scientific literature (Biswal et al., 2015; Ciacci et al., 2015; Crundwell et al., 2011; Jeong et al., 2009; Matricardi & Downing, 2012; Norgate et al., 2007; Nuss et al., 2014; Passarini et al., 2018; Pauliuk et al., 2013; Reck & Rotter, 2012; Reck et al., 2008; Reidies, 2000; Wellbeloved et al., 2000; Kalyoncu and Taylor, 2014).…”

Life Cycle Environmental Assessment of Lithium-Ion and Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries for Plug-In Hybrid and Battery Electric Vehicles

“…This constitutes an important modeling choice which may significantly impact energy requirements. All three materials are produced from metal salts, which are byproduct or intermediates of hydro-metallurgy. − It is an important characteristic of our inventory that it avoids using metal proxies in lieu of metal salts; none of these ionic metal compounds ever undergo the energy intensive step of being reduced to their neutral form. This contrasts with the production of the NiMH negative electrode, which is based on an alloy of nickel and lanthanum (or lanthanum-rich mischmetal).…”