London 2012 Paralympic swimming: passive drag and the classification system

Oh, Yim-Taek; Burkett, Brendan; Osborough, Conor D.; Formosa, Danielle P.; Payton, Carl J.

doi:10.1136/bjsports-2013-092192

Cited by 36 publications

(54 citation statements)

References 18 publications

(22 reference statements)

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“…[9][10][11][12][13] Para swimmers with limb deficiency, resulting from trauma or congenital birth defect, have reduced body surface area that impacts their ability to produce propulsive forces and minimize their resistance in the water. [14][15][16] The current classification system uses direct limb length measurements and body segment parameters (in cases of bilateral impairments) to determine the relative length of para swimmers' affected limb segments and summate a points score used for classification. 3 Points are allocated for the hand, forearm, upper arm, foot, shank, and thigh based on each limb segments' expected contribution to performance in the swimming strokes of the S and SB classes.…”

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A novel method to guide classification of para swimmers with limb deficiency

Hogarth

Payton

Vliet

et al. 2018

Scandinavian Med Sci Sports

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The International Paralympic Committee has directed International Federations that govern Para sports to develop evidence-based classification systems. This study defined the impact of limb deficiency impairment on 100 m freestyle performance to guide an evidence-based classification system in Para Swimming, which will be implemented following the 2020 Tokyo Paralympic games. Impairment data and competitive race performances of 90 international swimmers with limb deficiency were collected. Ensemble partial least squares regression established the relationship between relative limb length measures and competitive 100 m freestyle performance. The model explained 80% of the variance in 100 m freestyle performance and found hand length and forearm length to be the most important predictors of performance. Based on the results of this model, Para swimmers were clustered into four-, five-, six-, and seven-class structures using nonparametric kernel density estimations. The validity of these classification structures, and effectiveness against the current classification system, were examined by establishing within-class variations in 100 m freestyle performance and differences between adjacent classes. The derived classification structures were found to be more effective than current classification based on these criteria. This study provides a novel method that can be used to improve the objectivity and transparency of decision-making in Para sport classification. Expert consensus from experienced coaches, Para swimmers, classifiers, and sport science and medicine personnel will benefit the translation of these findings into a revised classification system that is accepted by the Para swimming community.

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confidence: 99%

A novel method to guide classification of para swimmers with limb deficiency

Hogarth

Payton

Vliet

et al. 2018

Scandinavian Med Sci Sports

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“…15 This is 300 because large correlations were found between free-swim velocity and the International Point (Table 3). 11 However, as the mean difference in drag between classes was found 313 to be inconsistent, it was concluded that the current classification system does not always 314 differentiate clearly between swimming groups. 11 …”

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“…3,14,22,24,25,29 Also, biomechanics were important in evidence-based 98 classification in Paralympic sports (n=6; some studies addressed more than one of these 99 points) (Tables 1-3). 5,6,10,11,17,32 In the current review, sports were subdivided into three main 100 groups based on Bernardi et al …”

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confidence: 99%

“…Biomechanical understanding already provides insights in performance 368 enhancement in several summer sports [3][4][5][6][8][9][10][11][12][13]17,18,22,[24][25][26][27]30,[32][33][34] and is important for developing 369 training programs aimed at optimizing performance and preventing injuries.…”

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confidence: 99%

“…Thirteen 107 studies (38% of the included studies) [5][6][7][8][9][10][11]17,23,27,[30][31][32] were performed during the Paralympic…”

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Biomechanics in Paralympics: Implications for Performance

Morriën¹,

Taylor²,

Hettinga³

2017

International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance

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Methods 77With the intention to obtain all papers reporting on biomechanics in Paralympic sports and 78Paralympic athletes, the key words "Paralympic Biomechanics", "Paralympic Sport 79Performance", "Paralympic Athlete Performance" and "Paralympic Athlete" were entered 80into PubMed (July 2016). All studies on biomechanics in Paralympic and World Class 81 athletes were included, including case-studies. Interviews, editorials, reviews, studies not 82 available online and studies not in English were excluded (Figure 1). 83Insert figure 1 about here 84 85 Results 86Twenty articles were identified using the keywords "Paralympic Biomechanics", 124 using 87 the keywords "Paralympic Sport Performance", 110 using the keywords "Paralympic Athlete 88Performance", and 220 using the keywords "Paralympic Athlete". After applying the 89 exclusion criteria, eleven, 2-12 ten, 13-22 one, 23 and seven 24-30 articles were selected respectively. 90Based on the authors' knowledge, five more studies were included, 31-35 on biomechanics in 91Paralympic athletes. In total, 34 studies were included (Tables 1-3). One case-study 36 was 92 selected using the keywords "Paralympic Biomechanics" and two 37-38 using the keywords 93"Paralympic Sport Performance" (Table 4). Based on the authors' knowledge, four more case-94 studies were included (Table 4). 39-42 95Biomechanical studies in Paralympic athletes (non case-studies) mainly contributed to 96 performance enhancement by technical optimization (n=32) [2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][30][31][32][33][34][35] and injury prevention 97 (n=6) ( Tables 1-3). 3,14,22,24,25,29 Also, biomechanics were important in evidence-based 98 classification in Paralympic sports (n=6; some studies addressed more than one of these 99 points) (Tables 1-3). 5,6,10,11,17,32 In the current review, sports were subdivided into three main 100 groups based on Bernardi et al. 43: sitting, standing, and visually-impaired athletes. However, 101no studies specifically on visually impaired athletes and biomechanics were found. Instead, 102several studies on biomechanics and swimming were included, and we defined swimming as a 103 third group, replacing the group of visually-impaired athletes. 104Studies on biomechanics in Paralympic summer (n=29, 85% of the included studies) 105and winter sports (n=5, 15% of the included studies), the number of participants, type of 106 sport, type of impairment, test used, and main outcome are presented (Tables 1-3). Thirteen 107 studies (38% of the included studies) [5][6][7][8][9][10][11]17,23,27,[30][31][32] were performed during the Paralympic 108Games or World Championships, whereas the remaining twenty-one studies (62% of the 109 included studies) were performed in a laboratory setting studying Paralympic athletes. 2-4,12-110 16,18-22,24-26,28,29,33-35 Furthermore, 41% (n=14) of the studies were performed on sitting sports, 11138% on standing sports (n=13), and 21% (n=7) on swimming. 135Handcycling could successfu...

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Contribution of sports science to performance: Swimming

Burkett

2016

Training and Coaching the Paralympic Athlete

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London 2012 Paralympic swimming: passive drag and the classification system

Abstract: Although swimmers with the lowest swimming class experienced the highest passive drag and vice versa, the inconsistent difference in mean passive drag between adjacent classes indicates that the current classification system does not always differentiate clearly between swimming groups.

Cited by 36 publications

References 18 publications

A novel method to guide classification of para swimmers with limb deficiency

A novel method to guide classification of para swimmers with limb deficiency

Biomechanics in Paralympics: Implications for Performance

Contribution of sports science to performance: Swimming

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