Linking the Recent Glacier Retreat and Depleting Streamflow Patterns with Land System Changes in Kashmir Himalaya, India

Abstract

This study reports the changes in glacier extent and streamflow similar to many Himalayan studies, but takes the unusual step of also linking these to downstream land use changes in Kashmir Valley. This study assessed changes in the area, snout, and equilibrium line altitude (ELA) of four parts of the Kolahoi Glacier using earth observation data from 1962 to 2018. Changes in the discharge of the two streams flowing out from Kolahoi Glacier into the Jhelum basin were also assessed between 1972 and 2018. Additionally, satellite data was used to track the downstream land system changes concerning agriculture, orchards, and built-up areas between 1980 and 2018. This analysis suggested a cumulative deglaciation of 23.6% at a rate of 0.42% per year from 1962 to 2018. The snout of two larger glaciers, G1 and G2, retreated at a rate of 18.3 m a −1 and 16.4 m a −1 , respectively, from 1962 to 2018, although the rate of recession accelerated after 2000. Our analysis also suggested the upward shift of ELA by ≈120 m. The streamflows measured at five sites showed statistically significant depleting trends that have been a factor in forcing extensive land system changes downstream. Although the area under agriculture in Lidder watershed shrunk by 39%, there was a massive expansion of 176% and 476% in orchards and built-up areas, respectively, from 1980 to 2018. The conversion of irrigation-intensive agriculture lands (rice paddy) to less water-intensive orchards is attributed to economic considerations and depleting streamflow.Water 2020, 12, 1168 2 of 18 to decrease in the streamflows in the Himalayan Rivers [7,[27][28][29], which could affect water availability downstream [30]. Studies suggest that the glacier recession in the Kashmir valley has already resulted in the depleted streamflows downstream [31,32]. The land system changes in the region [33][34][35][36] have been linked to depleting streamflows, economic considerations, and unplanned land transformation.The use of remote sensing data for quantifying land system changes over the Kashmir region has been widely documented [37][38][39][40]. At the same time, there is substantial scientific literature detailing the glacier retreat prevalent over the region. A recent study indicated that the glaciers in the Ladakh region are retreating at 0.55% a −1 [41], whereas another study [42] reported few stable and advancing glaciers in the Zanskar region of Jammu and Kashmir. Similar retreat estimates have been put forth for the Zanskar region for the glacier area changes carried between 1989 and 2007 [43]. However, very conservative area changes (0.16% a −1 ) have been reported for the neighboring Suru basin [44] for the glacier area changes assessed for the 1977-2017 period. In another study carried out in the Lidder watershed of the Jhelum basin, the glaciers were reported to be shrinking at 0.51% a −1 [17]. Glacier mass change over the western Himalayas has accelerated from 0.33 to 0.5 m w.e. (water equivalent) per year between 1970-2000 and 2000-2010, respectively [45]. Ther...

Impacts of Erratic Snowfall on Apple Orchards in Kashmir Valley, India

“…This study indicates that of the total area of 1330 km 2 under apple orchards in Kashmir Valley, more than half of orchards (56%) are located in south Kashmir. Given the stark promotion of the horticultural sector, massive areas under irrigationintensive rice paddy currently undergo conversion to seemingly more viable apple orchards [49][50][51][52]. However, we argue that the ever-increasing area under orchards may well become unsustainable in…”

“…Given the stark promotion of the horticultural sector, massive areas under irrigation-intensive rice paddy currently undergo conversion to seemingly more viable apple orchards [49][50][51][52]. However, we argue that the ever-increasing area under orchards may well become unsustainable in economic (but also in environmental) terms given the challenges of changing climate [31,53] and the related exacerbation of extreme weather events.…”

Land system transformations govern the trophic status of an urban wetland ecosystem: Perspectives from remote sensing and water quality analysis

“…These landfilled areas are used for the construction of houses and result in open spaces and green spaces in the Wetland. Due to siltation and soil erosion from the catchment (Alam et al, 2011; Badar et al, 2013b; Romshoo et al, 2017), decrease in‐stream flows (Rashid et al, 2020; Romshoo & Rashid, 2014; Showqi et al, 2014) and blockage of the Mar Canal affecting the southern portion of Wetland, the overall depth of the Wetland decreased. This has altered the Wetland hydrology and resulted in the expansion of marshy areas that over time have been transformed either into open spaces for the contruction of settlements or plantations.…”

Tree-ring oxygen isotope based inferences on winter and summer moisture dynamics over the glacier valleys of Central Himalaya

“…Primarily, the retreat and mass loss of the glaciers have been attributed to greenhouse warming. However, recent studies corroborate that local-regional forcing and feedback processes also play an important role over the glacierized valleys (de Kok et al, 2018(de Kok et al, , 2020Lau et al, 2010;Managave et al, 2020;Pepin et al, 2015;Rashid et al, 2020;Sigdel et al, 2020;Yao et al, 2019). Several studies suggest that spatial heterogeneity in HKT is locally regulated by mechanisms associated with elevation-dependent warming, regional land-climate interaction, and long-term variability in the atmospheric circulations (Kapncik et al, 2014;Lau et al, 2010;Managave et al, 2020;Mölg et al, 2012aMölg et al, , 2014Mölg et al, , 2017Pepin et al, 2015;Singh et al, 2020Singh et al, , 2021Yao et al, 2019).…”

“…Subjected to the geographical location, the Himalayan glaciers are known to be regulated by inter-decadal variability in the winter-westerlies and the Indian summer monsoon (ISM) (Bookhagen and Burbank, 2010;Singh et al, 2021;Perry et al, 2020;Yao et al, 2019). However, recent studies on differential rates of heating and elevation-dependent warming have highlighted the importance of local land-climate interaction and feedback processes in ice-mass variability (Collier et al, 2013;de Kok et al, 2018de Kok et al, , 2020Lau et al, 2010;Mölg et al, 2012b;Pepin et al, 2015;Rashid et al, 2020;Sigdel et al, 2020;Yadav et al, 2019;Yao et al, 2019).…”