The impermeable nature of the cell membrane to peptides, proteins, DNA and oligonucleotides limits the therapeutic potential of these biological agents. However, the recent discovery of short cationic peptides that cross the plasma membrane efficiently is opening up new possibilities for the intracellular delivery of such agents. These peptides are commonly referred to as protein transduction domains (PTDs) and are successfully used to transport heterologous proteins, peptides and other types of cargo into cells. Several recent reports have used the membrane transducing technology in vivo to deliver biologically active cargo into various tissues. This review discusses the structure of the most commonly used PTDs and how their ability to transduce membranes is used to regulate biological functions. It also considers future directions and the potential of this technology to move from the laboratory into the clinic.Defining the function of a protein or controlling its action requires cellular expression of mutant forms of the protein or silencing of the corresponding gene. Until recently, this was achieved by transgene expression, either using recombinant vectors or directly introducing proteins into cells by microinjection, electroporation or red-cell ghost fusion, all of which are cumbersome techniques requiring specialist equipment [1][2][3]. Now, a new, non-invasive technology for the direct delivery of biological material is emerging, following the discovery that certain proteins can enter cells in an unconventional way. The TAT protein, a transactivation factor from the human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1), was the first polypeptide shown to gain entry into cells when added exogenously to culture medium [4][5][6]. Other proteins reported to cross the plasma membrane belong to the homeoprotein family of transcription factors [7] such as the Drosophila Antennapedia (Antp) protein [7,8].The herpes simplex virus VP22 has also been reported to cross the plasma membrane [9], although this result has recently been questioned [10]. The subsequent identification of short membrane-permeable cationic peptides derived from these proteins, and synthesis of other amphipathic peptides such as transportan [11,12], MAP [13] and KALA [14], has led to the development of a new technology for delivering biological agents into cells. These peptides are commonly known as protein transduction domains (PTDs) [15,16] or cell-penetrating peptides [17][18][19]. Hydrophobic domains corresponding to the leader sequence of proteins also cross membranes and have been used to introduce bioactive peptides into cells [20,21]. However, they might not be as potent as cationic PTDs and are only briefly mentioned here. At present, how membrane-transducing proteins and peptide transporters are internalized is not clearly understood. Initially, internalization was reported to take place at 4°C and in the presence of endocytosis inhibitors, suggesting that these peptides do not use the conventional endocytic pathway to enter cells [8,27,28,...