Intensive smolt production is associated with deviating cardiac morphology in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.)

Frisk, Michael; Høyland, Maren; Zhang, Lili; Vindas, Marco A.; Øverli, Øyvind; Johansen, Ida Beitnes

doi:10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.735615

Cited by 34 publications

(41 citation statements)

References 30 publications

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“…Intensive smolt production is characterised by manipulation of several parameters, such as high temperatures, high densities, light and feed for smoltification and rapid growth. Rapid growth is often considered an indicator of good quality, but rapid growth in the freshwater phase has been associated with lowered cardiac health and slower growth in the seawater phase (Frisk et al, 2020).…”

Section: Risk Factors Identified In the Questionnairementioning

confidence: 99%

Mortality patterns during the freshwater production phase of salmonids in Norway

Gåsnes

Oliveira

Gismervik

et al. 2021

Journal of Fish Diseases

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The Norwegian aquaculture industry is continuously growing, and sales of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) smolts increased from 288 million in 2011 to 372 million in 2019. Sales of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) smolts increased from 20 to 28 million in the same period (NFD, 2021b) (Figure 1). The industry is highly regulated, including animal welfare (Gismervik et al., 2020). However, it is still challenging to assess and benchmark fish welfare. Fish are held in an environment that is difficult for humans to inspect and fish behavioural patterns are not as intuitive for humans to understand as those of terrestrial animals. Large populations kept in large tank volumes further impairs such assessment and benchmarking. More than 60 million fish died in salmonid freshwater farms in Norway in 2019 (NFD, 2021a), and consumers and farmers have become increasingly concerned with farmed fish health and welfare.

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Section: Risk Factors Identified In the Questionnairementioning

confidence: 99%

Mortality patterns during the freshwater production phase of salmonids in Norway

Gåsnes

Oliveira

Gismervik

et al. 2021

Journal of Fish Diseases

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“…Moreover, the speed of growth during early rearing stages (up to smoltification) has been linked to cardiac abnormalities (e.g. rounded ventricles) 1 year after hatchery exposure [27]. Morphological abnormalities associated with farmed and hatchery salmonids (i.e.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Morphological abnormalities associated with farmed and hatchery salmonids (i.e. ventricle shape and alignment) can result in impaired cardiac function, lowered swimming performance and elevated risk of mortality [23,27,28]. Indeed, it has been observed that reproductive fitness is lower in hatchery versus wild salmonids, indicating early rearing conditions do have long-term consequences on fitness-related traits [29,30].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Field assessments of heart rate dynamics during spawning migration of wild and hatchery-reared Chinook salmon

Twardek

Ekström

Eliason

et al. 2021

Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B

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During spawning, adult Pacific salmonids ( Oncorhynchus spp . ) complete challenging upriver migrations during which energy and oxygen delivery must be partitioned into activities such as locomotion, maturation and spawning behaviours under the constraints of an individual's cardiac capacity. To advance our understanding of cardiac function in free-swimming fishes, we implanted migrating adult Chinook salmon ( Oncorhynchus tshawytscha ) collected near the mouth of the Sydenham River, Ontario, with heart rate ( f H ) biologgers that recorded f H every 3 min until these semelparous fish expired on spawning grounds several days later. Fundamental aspects of cardiac function were quantified, including resting, routine and maximum f H , as well as scope for f H (maximum−resting f H ). Predictors of f H were explored using generalized least-squares regression, including water temperature, discharge, fish size and fish origin (wild versus hatchery). Heart rate was positively correlated with water temperature, which aligned closely with daily and seasonal shifts. Wild fish had slower resting heart rates than hatchery fish, which led to significantly higher scope for f H . Our findings suggest that wild salmon may have better cardiac capacity during migration than hatchery fish, potentially promoting migration success in wild fish. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Measuring physiology in free-living animals (Part I)’.

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“…Additionally, these intensive systems are characterized by a high stocking density with high material and energy inputs, and possible negative impacts on water quality such as eutrophication and oxygen depletion [5]. However, in aquaculture, important efforts are devoted to developing efficient large-scale production while upholding fish welfare [6]. One way of ensuring animal welfare is by using environmental enrichment, a set of techniques used to modify the environment to be suitable and satisfactory for animal behavior by introducing artefacts or improving the breeding system [7].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Effects of Randomly Fired Underwater Currents as an Occupational Enrichment Program in Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

Villarroel

Lama

Bermejo‐Poza

et al. 2021

Water

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Occupational enrichment (OE) is directed at introducing variations in the tank water so that fish can exercise as they do in the wild. Two trials were carried out to test the effects of randomly fired underwater currents (RFC) on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) maintained in tanks in a recirculation system, using 1226 trout distributed in two independent trials. In Trial 1, fingerling trout (n = 6 tanks, n = 40 fish per tank) were classified into two groups based on low (13%) or high (30%) coefficient of variation in live weight (CV), and exposed to RFC or no currents (controls). In Trial 2, adult trout (n = 12 tanks, n = 20 fish per tank) were either exposed to RFC or to a constant current (controls) from two submerged pumps. Both trials lasted four weeks. No significant differences in growth were observed between treatments in either trial. In Trial 1, RFC fish maintained a similar CV throughout the trial, while CV decreased in controls. Also, in Trial 1, plasma cortisol levels were higher and creatine phosphokinase (CPK) levels lower in tanks with a low initial CV. In Trial 2, the CV was lower in RFC trout, where cortisol levels were also significantly lower and triglycerides significantly higher. The results suggest that OE using RFC can have positive effects by helping to reduce stress levels, and provides fish with biologically meaningful environmental enrichment related to the natural history of the species.

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Intensive smolt production is associated with deviating cardiac morphology in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.)

Cited by 34 publications

References 30 publications

Mortality patterns during the freshwater production phase of salmonids in Norway

Mortality patterns during the freshwater production phase of salmonids in Norway

Field assessments of heart rate dynamics during spawning migration of wild and hatchery-reared Chinook salmon

Effects of Randomly Fired Underwater Currents as an Occupational Enrichment Program in Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

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