Insights into Prevention of Health Complications in Small for Gestational Age (SGA) Births in Relation to Maternal Characteristics: A Narrative Review

Abstract

Small for gestational age (SGA) births are a significant clinical and public health issue. The objective of this review was to summarize maternal biological and socio-demographic factors and preventive strategies used to reduce the risk of SGA births. A literature search encompassing data from the last 15 years was conducted using electronic databases MEDLINE/PubMed, Google Scholar and Scopus to review risk factors and preventive strategies for SGA. Current evidence shows that primiparity, previous stillbirths, maternal age ≤24 and ≥35 years, single motherhood, low socio-economic status, smoking and cannabis use during pregnancy confer a significant risk of SGA births. Studies on alcohol consumption during pregnancy and SGA birth weight are inconclusive. Beneficial and preventive factors include the “Mediterranean diet” and dietary intake of vegetables. Periconceptional folic acid supplementation, maternal 25-hydroxyvitamin D, zinc and iron levels are partly associated with birth weight. No significant associations between COVID-19 vaccinations and birthweight are reported. A midwifery-led model based on early and extensive prenatal care reduces the risk of SGA births in women with low socio-economic status. Major preventive measures relate to the awareness of modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors of SGA, leading to changes in parents’ lifestyles. These data support that education, monitoring during pregnancy, and implementing preventive strategies are as important as biological determinants in risk reduction of SGA births.

Impact of Pre-Gestational BMI and Gestational Weight Gain on Fetal Development Outcomes in Adolescent Pregnant Women

“…Consequently, this study selectively included patients who received comprehensive and meticulous care. The mean age was 15.82 ± 0.988 years (ranging from [13][14][15][16][17], and the mean gestational age was 38.48 ± 1.827 weeks (ranging from 32-43.5).…”

“…Women of reproductive age, particularly during adolescence, should adhere to a comprehensive and balanced diet to fulfill their growth goals and ensure both physical and cognitive maturation. Pregnancy further amplifies the necessity for increased nutritional intake to adequately support fetal development [16]. However, due to their high-risk and unstable status, adolescent pregnant patients often struggle to meet these nutritional needs.…”

To boldly go where no microRNAs have gone before: Spaceflight impact on risk for small-for-gestational-age infants

“…These infants face various health risks, including hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and type 2 diabetes mellitus 12,13 , which can be exacerbated by rapid postnatal weight gain 14 . The risk of SGA births is in uenced by various factors, including maternal lifestyle choices (e.g., smoking), placental insu ciency (e.g., in pre-eclampsia), gestational weight gain, twin pregnancies, paternal factors (e.g., SGA birth, height), and environmental elements (e.g., pollution) 15 . In this work, we hypothesize that the risk of SGA development increases after maternal exposure to space stressors, and we further hypothesize that microRNAs (miRNAs) provide a relevant biosignature for diagnostics and monitoring.…”

Reference Values for Birth Weight in Relation to Gestational Age in Poland and Comparison with the Global Percentile Standards

“…These percentile reference charts represent smoothed birth weight at gestational age (GA) and are used for clinical measurements. Small-for-gestational age (SGA) or large-for-gestational age (LGA), usually defined below the 10th or above the 90th percentile, approximates adverse newborn outcomes [3][4][5][6]. The etiology of fetal growth disturbances is multifactorial and may result from a number of cumulative mechanisms, including fetal, maternal, and placental factors.…”