If-Then Plans Benefit Executive Functions in Children with ADHD

Abstract

Children with ADHD encounter multiple academic and interpersonal problems presumably due to insuf cient executive functions. In two studies we measured executive functions (i.e., shifting, resistance to distraction) and assessed whether children with ADHD can empower these functions by forming implementation intentions (i.e., if-then plans; Gollwitzer, 1999). Children with ADHD made fewer perseverative errors on a shifting task (Study 1) when instructed to make if-then plans. They also bene ted from if-then plans in solving math problems that required both working memory and the inhibition of distractions (Study 2). Results concerning implications for research on if-then planning in children with ADHD are discussed.1. For ease of exposition in this paper, the term ADHD is used constantly as an abbreviation for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder according to the DSM-IV combined subtype of ADHD and the ICD-10 category of Hyperkinetic Disorder. PLANS BENEFIT EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS IN ADHD 617Inattentiveness, impulsivity, and hyperactivity are the core symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).1 Children with ADHD are easily distracted by extraneous stimuli, have problems organizing activities, and lack inhibitory control. Prominent theories on ADHD suggest that ADHD-symptoms arise from deficits in executive functions because these deficits reliably differentiate children with ADHD from children without ADHD (Barkley, 1997). For instance, children with ADHD show worse performances compared to children without ADHD on tasks requiring planning, inhibition, task shifting, and working memory (Lijffijt, Kenemans, Verbaten, & van Engeland, 2005).Executive functions are commonly grouped into three types: (a) inhibition, (b) shifting, and (c) working memory (Miyake, Friedman, Emerson, Witzki, & Howerter, 2000).Inhibition involves the ability to inhibit dominant, automatic, or pre-potent responses. A typical inhibition task is the Stop Signal task (SST; Logan & Cowan, 1984), in which participants learn to discriminate between two different stimuli (i.e., X versus O) and in one-third of the trials an auditive stop signal is presented with a time delay after the presentation of the stimulus (e.g., 250 ms). In trials with a stop signal, participants are required to inhibit their response. Children with ADHD have difficulties to inhibit their response on stop trials and show a prolonged reaction time on Go trials as compared to children without ADHD and without any psychiatric diagnosis (Lijffijt et al., 2005).Another type of executive function encompasses the shifting back and forth between multiple tasks or mental sets (Monsell, 1996). Also referred to as task switching, shifting has been identified as an executive function that may play a role in failures of cognitive control in patients with brain injuries and psychiatric disorders (Miyake et al., 2000). Children with ADHD also have difficulties performing tasks that require shifting between mental sets and therefore consistently exhibit poorer performan...

Planning and self-control, but not working memory, directly predict multiplication performance in adults

“…Therefore, participants with more self-control were better able to suppress unwanted thoughts and to ignore distracting information, which is associated with faster computations and more rapid responses. This finding is in line with previous studies suggesting an association between self-control ability and better performance in various tasks (e.g., Gawrilow et al, 2011;Passolunghi & Siegel, 2001). Furthermore, it is consistent with previous studies suggesting that people with self-control deficits, such as patients with frontal lobe dysfunctions, exhibit slower RTs with high variability across wide range of tasks (e.g., Dimoska, Johnstone, Barry, & Clarke, 2003;Kofler et al, 2013;Senderecka, Grabowska, Szewczyk, Gerc, & Chmylak, 2012).…”

“…One reason could be that procedural arithmetic computations (i.e., step-by-step computation during arithmetic problem solving) require concentrating and ignoring irrelevant information, which in turn rely on self-control (e.g., Gawrilow et al, 2011;Passolunghi & Siegel, 2001). Therefore, participants with more self-control were better able to suppress unwanted thoughts and to ignore distracting information, which is associated with faster computations and more rapid responses.…”

“…Previous studies have indicated that both self-regulation and self-control can predict mathematical performance in children (e.g., Blair & Razza, 2007;Gawrilow, Gollwitzer, & Oettingen, 2011). However, studies on the relationship between self-regulation, self-control, and arithmetic performance are rather scarce.…”

“…However, studies on the relationship between self-regulation, self-control, and arithmetic performance are rather scarce. The few existing studies indicate that self-regulation and self-control may contribute to mathematical performance by blocking out distracting information (e.g., Gawrilow et al, 2011;Passolunghi & Siegel, 2001) and through their relations to various components of EF such as inhibition or WM (e.g., Best & Miller, 2010;Hofmann, Friese, Schmeichel, & Baddeley, 2011;McClelland & Cameron, 2012;McClelland et al, 2007). Previous studies have shown that WM is related to self-regulation and self-control (Hofmann et al, 2011), as for instance, selfregulation involves WM in representing goals and updating goal-related information (Kane, Bleckley, Conway, & Engle, 2001;Miller & Cohen, 2001).…”

Multitasking in adults with ADHD

“…The anchors were 1 (not difficult at all) to 10 (very difficult). These items had been previously used (Gawrilow et al 2011).…”