Geophagy in New World Monkeys (Platyrrhini): Ecological and Geographic Patterns

Abstract

Geophagy has been recorded in an increasing number of New World monkeys (Platyrrhini) over recent years, permitting a tentative analysis of ecological patterns. While geophagy has now been recorded in species representing all 4 platyrrhine families and a majority of genera, there is a marked tendency for it to occur in the larger-bodied Pitheciidae and Atelidae. Howlers (Alouatta) are responsible for almost a third of reports, which are concentrated in the more frugivorous species, Alouatta belzebul and Alouatta seniculus. Geophagy may also be relatively common in the spider monkeys (Ateles) and the pitheciids, which are specialised frugivores and seed predators, respectively. An overview of the available data points to a marked Amazonian bias, allowing for geographical differences in the number of species and field studies. This pattern is demonstrated most emphatically by Alouatta, for which there are almost as many reports as field studies in the Amazon basin, in stark contrast with Central American sites, which have a long tradition of fieldwork, but no published records of geophagy. There are also relatively few reports from the Brazilian Atlantic forest. Despite the growth in reports, and the patterns identified here, the functional aspects of geophagy in the platyrrhines still remain unclear.

Increased folivory in brown spider monkeys Ateles hybridus living in a fragmented forest in Colombia

“…It may be significant, then, that in most long-term studies spider monkeys are reported to feed on clay from mineral licks (Izawa 1993, Link et al 2011a, which is suggested to be one means by which they cope with the effects of secondary metabolites. Spider monkeys at San Juan and elsewhere are also reported to feed on decayed wood from dead standing trees (Suarez 2006, Di Fiore et al 2008, Chaves et al 2012, which may allow them ac cess to additional minerals not otherwise available in their diet (Krishnamani & Ma haney 2000, Ferrari et al 2008.…”

Geophagy in Brown Spider Monkeys (Ateles hybridus) in a Lowland Tropical Rainforest in Colombia

“…Geophagy, the intentional consumption of soil by animals, has been observed in several primate species amongst catarrhines and platyrrhines [Krishnamani and Mahaney, 2000;Ferrari et al, 2008]. For many primate species, or populations, soil is an important and frequently consumed item in their diets (e.g.…”

“…For many primate species, or populations, soil is an important and frequently consumed item in their diets (e.g. Ateles and Alouat- Folia Primatol 2011;82:25-32 26 Link /de Luna /Arango /Diaz ta ) [Izawa, 1993;Blake et al, 2010;Link et al, 2011] most often obtained from termite mounds, leaf-cutting ant mounds, the forest floor or mineral licks [Ferrari et al, 2008]. Mineral licks are specific sites where not only primates come to eat soil or drink water, but also a large diversity of other mammals and birds use them for similar purposes [Izawa, 1993;Montenegro, 2004;Tobler et al, 2009].…”

“…Even though geophagy in platyrrhines seems to occur in several genera, only two species of spider monkeys ( Ateles spp.) and one species of howler monkeys (Alouatta seniculus) are regular visitors at mineral licks [Ferrari et al, 2008]. Several non-exclusive hypotheses have been proposed to explain the functionality of geophagy in mammals and birds [Johns and Duquette, 1991;Krishnamani and Mahaney, 2000;Brightsmith and Muñoz-Najar, 2004;Brightsmith et al, 2008].…”

“…Recently, Ferrari et al [2008] compiled the data on geophagy by New World monkeys and proposed two potential trends: (1) geophagy is more common amongst herbivorous species compared to those that include insects (at least partially) in their diets, and (2) geophagy is more common for Amazonian primates compared to other Neotropical primates. From these meta-analyses (see table 3 in Ferrari et al [2008]) and the review on spider monkey diet done by Di Fiore et al [2008], it is noticeable that all reports of geophagy at mineral licks by Neotropical primates are restricted to long-haired spider monkeys (Ateles belzebuth belzebuth), black spider monkeys (Ateles belzebuth chamek) and red howler monkeys (Alouatta seniculus), particularly in populations living in western Amazonia. Data on the temporal patterns of mineral lick visitation by primates or on the influence of environmental factors on primate geophagy are still scant.…”