Gender and culture

Abstract

This paper reviews the literature on gender and culture. Gender gaps in various outcomes (competitiveness, labour force participation, and performance in mathematics, among many others) show remarkable differences across countries and tend to persist over time. The economics literature initially explained these differences by looking at standard economic variables such as the level of development, women’s education, the expansion of the service sector, and discrimination. More recent literature has argued that gender differences in a variety of outcomes could reflect underlying cultural values and beliefs. This article reviews the literature on the relevance of culture in the determination of different forms of gender gap. I examine how differences in historical situations could have been relevant in generating gender differences and the conditions under which gender norms tend to be stable or to change over time, emphasizing the role of social learning. Finally, I review the role of different forms of cultural transmission in shaping gender differences, distinguishing between channels of vertical transmission (the role of the family), horizontal transmission (the role of peers), and oblique transmission (the role of teachers or role models).

Reshaping Norms: A New Way Forward

“…Some norms originally may have had a rationale in protecting women from hardships or risks or may reflect old economic relationships. Observed gender differences in labor force participation can be traced back to traditional agricultural practices (Alesina et al 2013;Giuliano 2020). Women's traditional specialization in home production might stem from a comparative male advantage in performing more physically demanding tasks.…”

“…Women's traditional specialization in home production might stem from a comparative male advantage in performing more physically demanding tasks. Dowry payment might have its roots in agricultural societies where women played a more limited productive role compared to men (Giuliano 2020). But this cannot explain its persistence today, when production has shifted from agriculture, agriculture has increased in mechanization, and education levels of women have increased, thus reducing the cost of "taking a woman" in marriage.…”

The Power and Roots of Aspirations: A Survey of the Empirical Evidence

“…Cultural factors such as social norms can be constraining and reduce aspirations, in particular for women (Giuliano 2020), and for those of low social classes in countries where social hierarchies are strong (Ray 2006). Norms affect stereotypes and can result in disadvantaged groups (such as the poor, girls, and immigrants), undervaluing their potential and underperforming when reminded about their identity.…”

Gender economics: an assessment

“…The short-run effects, however, do not show responsibilities being shared more equally (Sevilla and Smith, 2020;Adams-Prassl, 2020). Giuliano (2020) emphasizes social learning as a way in which social norms may change. For example, when inactive women see that more women are at work, they tend to supply their labour (Fogli and Veldkamp, 2011).…”