Gaze alternation in dogs and toddlers in an unsolvable task: evidence of an audience effect

Abstract

Dogs have been shown to use human-directed gazing behaviour and gaze alternation in numerous contexts; however, it is still unclear whether this behaviour can be considered an intentional and referential communicative act. In the current study, adult dogs and preverbal toddlers were tested using the classic unsolvable task paradigm, but varying the attentional stance of the participating audience (the experimenter and the caregiver). The aims were to assess (1) whether dogs and toddlers would use gaze alternation behaviour in similar manners when the task became unsolvable, and (2) whether both dogs and toddlers would take into account the attentional stance of the audience when initiating a communicative interaction. Results indicated that both toddlers and dogs increased their gaze alternation behaviour between the apparatus and caregiver when the task became unsolvable, and toddlers also showed an increase in pointing behaviour. Furthermore, both species showed a capacity to take into account the attentional stance of the audience when manifesting gaze alternation behaviours towards them. Taken together, these results suggest that gaze alternation is both an intentional and referential communicative act and that both species can take into account the need for audience attention when communicating with them.

Are Dogs Able to Communicate with Their Owners about a Desirable Food in a Referential and Intentional Way?

“…Gaunet and Deputte [6] also suggested that dogs use their position as a local enhancement cue. The direction of human’s attention influenced dogs’ gaze alternations when they faced a potentially scary object or an unsolvable task [37], [38] (criterion d). Finally, one study [7] suggested that dogs persist (criterion e) when they request a toy and receive an unfamiliar object instead, however this study [7] challenged the elaboration of communication (criterion f).…”

“…Moreover, dogs are sensitive to human’s visual perspective [35], [36]: in the presence of an opaque barrier blocking the human’s view of a forbidden food, dogs took more of this forbidden food [35]. The influence of humans' direction of attention on dogs’ communicative signals has been observed when facing a new and potentially scary object [37] and in an unsolvable task [38], but it has not been addressed when dogs can beg for food. Finally, one study investigated the persistence and elaboration of communication in dogs [7]: dogs showed persistence when an unfamiliar object was returned instead of a desirable toy, but no new behaviors were observed after receiving the unfamiliar object.…”

Gazing toward humans: A study on water rescue dogs using the impossible task paradigm

“…It should be noted that in water rescue dogs gazing behaviour is reinforced to increase dogs' attention to the owner, but not in the context of problem solving. Whether dogs were gazing to seek for help in solving the task, as proposed in other studies (Cooper et al, 2003;Marshall-Pescini et al, 2013, 2009Miklósi et al, 2003Miklósi et al, , 2000Passalacqua et al, 2013Passalacqua et al, , 2011 and/or were waiting to receive commands and instruction, as they are trained to do, is unclear, thereby warranting further investigation.…”

Goats display audience-dependent human-directed gazing behaviour in a problem-solving task

“…Although young dogs also show some human-directed gazing behaviour, this trait seems to be influenced by developmental factors during their ontogeny [4]. In addition, both adult dogs and human toddlers (Homo sapiens) take into account the attentional stance of a human and increase their use of gaze alternations during an 'unsolvable problem' task, indicating the communicative and referential nature of the behavioural outcome in this task [5].…”