From Apollo LM to Altair: Design, Environments, Infrastructure, Missions, and Operations

Cohen, Marc

doi:10.2514/6.2009-6404

Cited by 15 publications

(6 citation statements)

References 7 publications

(3 reference statements)

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“…Current spacecraft ensure the working fluid will not freeze by using fluids with low freezing points, such as Ammonia or Freon-21. 2 However, these fluids are highly toxic and thus must be isolated from the crew, necessitating a two-fluid-loop TCS. These designs add system complexity in the form of additional tubing and heat exchangers between the fluid loops, increase TCS weight by 23%, and increase the possibility of more difficult repairs.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Design, experimental demonstration, and validation of a composite morphing space radiator

Walgren

Nevin

Hartl

2022

Journal of Composite Materials

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Future manned space missions will require thermal control systems that can adapt to larger fluctuations in temperature and heat flux exceeding the capabilities of current state-of-the-art technologies. Specifically, these missions will demand novel space radiators that can vary the system heat rejection rate to maintain the crew cabin at habitable temperatures throughout the entire mission. While current systems can provide a turndown ratio (defined as the ratio of maximum to minimum heat rejection rates) of 3:1 under adverse conditions, future missions are projected to demand thermal control systems that can provide a turndown ratio of more than 6:1. A novel morphing radiator concept autonomously varies the system heat rejection rate by altering the shape of the panel exposed to space, where composite materials can provide an ideal compromise between thermal conductivity, restorative stiffness and deformation capability. Shape change is accomplished through the use of shape memory alloys, a class of active materials that exhibit thermomechanically driven phase transformations and can be used as simultaneous sensors and actuators in thermal control applications. This work details progress towards testing and modeling a spaceflight-quality, high turndown ratio morphing radiator prototype in a relevant thermal environment. A prototype composite morphing radiator with shape memory alloy strip actuators and high performance thermal coatings achieved a turndown ratio of 7.2:1, while an associated multi-physical model thereof has been shown to capture all major effects and will enable future design improvements.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Design, experimental demonstration, and validation of a composite morphing space radiator

Walgren

Nevin

Hartl

2022

Journal of Composite Materials

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“…Optimal visibility conditions were provided by operational procedures and constraints, including launch times, dates, and landing locations. Automated landing of Apollo was possible, but all landings were manually flown with the crew taking over control between 550 and 240 ft above the touchdown zone elevation [26]. After Apollo 11, each crew performed at least 1, and as many as 18, landing zone re-designations during the pitch-up phase [27].…”

Section: Lunar Lander Handling Qualities Design Implicationsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…As NASA looked to return to the lunar surface, the design issues and lessons-learned of Apollo were closely studied as they are still relevant today for practical planetary and lunar lander vehicle designs and missions [22][23][24][25][26][27]. From this baseline, additional challenges for the vehicle design were levied to improve the scientific return for manned lunar missions.…”

Section: Lunar Lander Handling Qualities Design Implicationsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Handling qualities implications for crewed spacecraft operations

Bailey

Jackson

Arthur

2012

2012 IEEE Aerospace Conference

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Abstract-Handling qualities embody those qualities or characteristics of an aircraft that govern the ease and precision with which a pilot is able to perform the tasks required in support of an aircraft role. These same qualities are as critical, if not more so, in the operation of spacecraft.A research, development, test, and evaluation process was put into effect to identify, understand, and interpret the engineering and human factors principles which govern the pilot-vehicle dynamic system as they pertain to space exploration missions and tasks. Toward this objective, piloted simulations were conducted at the NASA Langley Research Center and Ames Research Center for earth-orbit proximity operations and docking and lunar landing.These works provide broad guidelines for the design of spacecraft to exhibit excellent handling characteristics. In particular, this work demonstrates how handling qualities include much more than just stability and control characteristics of a spacecraft or aircraft. Handling qualities are affected by all aspects of the "pilot-vehicle dynamic system," including the motion, visual and aural cues of the vehicle response as the pilot performs the required operation or task. A holistic approach to spacecraft design, including the use of manual control, automatic control, and pilot intervention/supervision is described. The handling qualities implications of design decisions are demonstrated using these pilot-in-the-loop evaluations of docking operations and lunar landings.

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“…13 The simulated spacecraft was not intended to be a replica of the Altair vehicle, but was roughly representative of its current instantiation to develop relevant design data and guidance material.…”

Section: Simulated Spacecraftmentioning

confidence: 99%

Part-task simulation of synthetic and enhanced vision concepts for lunar landing

et al. 2010

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During Apollo, the constraints placed by the design of the Lunar Module (LM) window for crew visibility and landing trajectory were "a major problem." Lunar landing trajectories were tailored to provide crew visibility using nearly 70 degrees look-down angle from the canted LM windows. Apollo landings were scheduled only at specific times and locations to provide optimal sunlight on the landing site.The complications of trajectory design and crew visibility are still a problem today. Practical vehicle designs for lunar lander missions using optimal or near-optimal fuel trajectories render the natural vision of the crew from windows inadequate for the approach and landing task. Further, the sun angles for the desirable landing areas in the lunar polar regions create visually powerful, season-long shadow effects. Fortunately, Synthetic and Enhanced Vision (S/EV) technologies, conceived and developed in the aviation domain, may provide solutions to this visibility problem and enable additional benefits for safer, more efficient lunar operations. Piloted simulation evaluations have been conducted to assess the handling qualities of the various lunar landing concepts, including the influence of cockpit displays and the informational data and formats. Evaluation pilots flew various landing scenarios with S/EV displays. For some of the evaluation trials, an eye glasses-mounted, monochrome monocular display, coupled with head tracking, was worn. The head-worn display scene consisted of S/EV fusion concepts.The results of this experiment showed that a head-worn system did not increase the pilot's workload when compared to using just the head-down displays. As expected, the head-worn system did not provide an increase in performance measures. Some pilots commented that the head-worn system provided greater situational awareness compared to just head-down displays.

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From Apollo LM to Altair: Design, Environments, Infrastructure, Missions, and Operations

Cited by 15 publications

References 7 publications

Design, experimental demonstration, and validation of a composite morphing space radiator

Design, experimental demonstration, and validation of a composite morphing space radiator

Handling qualities implications for crewed spacecraft operations

Part-task simulation of synthetic and enhanced vision concepts for lunar landing

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