Flexible operation strategy for formic acid synthesis providing frequency containment reserve in smart grids

Should we exploit flexibility of chemical processes for demand response? Differing perspectives on potential benefits and limitations

“…Next to the production of chlorine, publications cover the production of hydrogen, ammonia, methane, methanol, synthetic natural gas, ethylene oxide and formic acid. The studies considered either the process designed as implemented in the industry today (Gruber 2017;Otashu and Baldea (2018;2019;Otashu et al, 2021;Richstein and Hosseinioun, 2020;Kelley et al, 2022;Bruns et al, 2021), modifications to the design aiming to increase flexibility [Brée et al (2020;2019) propose a completely new design (Nayak-Luke et al, 2018;Fischer and Freund, 2020;Chen and Yang, 2021;Mukelabai et al, 2021;Bruns et al, 2022b;Herrmann et al, 2022;Samani et al, 2022;Semrau and Engell, 2023). All authors used modelling for simulation or optimization to study the flexibility potential, capturing the complexity of the processes with varying levels of detail, ranging from a simplified representation as a battery to dynamic process modelling.…”

“…Two options to reduce production costs have been identified. First, by avoiding production during periods of high electricity prices via an active adaption of operation (Otashu and Baldea 2018;Otashu et al, 2021;Brée et al (2019;Kelley et al, 2022;Bruns et al, 2022a), and second by process operation for power grid frequency regulation (Otashu and Baldea, 2020;Hoffmann et al, 2021;Samani et al, 2022), for which the electricity grid operator pays the plant operator. The first option is also seen as a possibility to overcome the electricity cost barrier that is attributed to electrification (Den Ouden et al, 2017).…”

“…As mentioned before, uncertainty in market prices increases the difficulty of planning flexible operation. Uncertainties are therefore a barrier for the industry to consider flexible operation as valuable for them (Samani et al, 2022). Such uncertainties include first, the electricity price and long-term development in the price (Brée et al, 2019), second, the amount of money paid for grid-balancing services (Leinauer et al, 2022), third, the hydrogen price, in case of operation with auxiliary units (Brée et al, 2020), and last, the development of the markets they are involved in (Zhang and Grossmann, 2016).…”

“…The latter can imply higher electricity consumption, and would therefore reduce the potential financial benefit of flexible operation [d]. Samani et al (2022) added that the absence of an adaptive control architecture for flexible operation also increases the difficulty to maintain a stable efficiency. Deviation from optimal operating conditions can also degrade the quality of the product (Leinauer et al, 2022), which can lead to additional economic losses.…”

Addressing preliminary challenges in upscaling the recovery of lithium from spent lithium ion batteries by the electrochemical method: a review

“…The purpose of TEA implementation is wide-ranging, encompassing the evaluation of economic factors, payback period, internal rate of return, return on investment, discounted cash flow rate of return, capital cost, general costs, profit or revenue, economic potential, overall economic feasibility, process factors, efficiency of operation and environmental factors. 138,154–163 LCA covers a broad spectrum of environmental performance parameters, including greenhouse gas emissions, global warming potential, human toxicity potential, terrestrial ecotoxicity potential, ozone layer depletion potential, water consumption, freshwater ecotoxicity, and land use. 141,164,165 In addition to informed decision-making, the variety of scopes covered in the assessments put all stakeholders in the know about the key issues to be resolved for successful scale-up of a particular technology.…”