Fear in animals: a meta-analysis and review of risk assessment

Abstract

The amount of risk animals perceive in a given circumstance (i.e. their degree of 'fear') is a difficult motivational state to study. While many studies have used flight initiation distance as a proxy for fearfulness and examined the factors influencing the decision to flee, there is no general understanding of the relative importance of these factors. By identifying factors with large effect sizes, we can determine whether anti-predator strategies reduce fear, and we gain a unique perspective on the coevolution of predator and anti-predator behaviour. Based on an extensive review and formal meta-analysis, we found that predator traits that were associated with greater risk (speed, size, directness of approach), increased prey distance to refuge and experience with predators consistently amplified the perception of risk (in terms of flight initiation distance). While fish tolerated closer approach when in larger schools, other taxa had greater flight initiation distances when in larger groups. The presence of armoured and cryptic morphologies decreased perception of risk, but body temperature in lizards had no robust effect on flight initiation distance. We find that selection generally acts on prey to be sensitive to predator behaviour, as well as on prey to modify their behaviour and morphology.

Meta‐analysis of genome‐wide association from genomic prediction models

“…Similar to other MA implementations (Stankowich & Blumstein 2005; Akanno et al . 2013), we also consider sample‐size weighting.…”

The effects of radar on avian behavior: Implications for wildlife management at airports

“…This could change evaluation of the threat, which is one of the behavioral steps at which an animal can fail to avoid collision with a vehicle ). There have been many studies showing that animals can evaluate threats and modify flight initiation distance accordingly (reviewed by Stankowich and Blumstein, 2005). Cowbirds and white-tailed deer have also been shown to modify behavioral response times in response to properties of vehicle approaches similar to the one used in this study (Blackwell and Bernhardt, 2004;DeVault et al, 2014).…”

Speed kills: ineffective avian escape responses to oncoming vehicles

“…This decision is informed by characteristics of the oncoming object, such as size, speed and directness of approach [1], as well as the state or condition of the animal being threatened, including hunger level, experience and variation in risk-taking behaviours and personalities [2,3]. Animals combine sensory inputs with behavioural rules to assess the costs and benefits of fleeing and thus determine the timing of escape responses [4][5][6].…”