Factors associated with COVID-19 pandemic induced post-traumatic stress symptoms among adults living with and without HIV in Nigeria: a cross-sectional study

Abstract

Background Nigeria is a country with high risk for traumatic incidences, now aggravated by the COVID-19 pandemic. This study aimed to identify differences in COVID-19 related post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) among people living and not living with HIV; to assess whether PTSS were associated with COVID-19 pandemic-related anger, loneliness, social isolation, and social support; and to determine the association between PTSS and use of COVID-19 prevention strategies. Methods The data of the 3761 respondents for this analysis was extracted from a cross-sectional online survey that collected information about mental health and wellness from a convenience sample of adults, 18 years and above, in Nigeria from July to December 2020. Information was collected on the study’s dependent variable (PTSS), independent variables (self-reported COVID-19, HIV status, use of COVID-19 prevention strategies, perception of social isolation, access to emotional support, feelings of anger and loneliness), and potential confounder (age, sex at birth, employment status). A binary logistic regression model tested the associations between independent and dependent variables. Results Nearly half (47.5%) of the respondents had PTSS. People who had symptoms but were not tested (AOR = 2.20), felt socially isolated (AOR = 1.16), angry (AOR = 2.64), or lonely (AOR = 2.19) had significantly greater odds of reporting PTSS (p < 0.001). People living with HIV (AOR = 0.39), those who wore masks (AOR = 0.62) and those who had emotional support (AOR = 0.63), had lower odds of reporting PTSS (p < .05). Conclusion The present study identified some multifaceted relationships between post-traumatic stress, HIV status, facemask use, anger, loneliness, social isolation, and access to emotional support during this protracted COVID-19 pandemic. These findings have implications for the future health of those affected, particularly for individuals living in Nigeria. Public health education should be incorporated in programs targeting prevention and prompt diagnosis and treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder at the community level.

Sex differences in the experience of COVID-19 post-traumatic stress symptoms by adults in South Africa

“…The proportion of residents in South Africa who reported PTSS in this study was higher than the 7% reported in China [ 12 ], and the pre-COVID-19 reports of 8 and 14% PTSS in populations in South Africa [ 34 , 35 ]. The prevalence is however, lower than the 47.5% reported in Nigeria in a study analysed from the same primary dataset used for this study [ 15 ]. The high prevalence of PTSS is a concern as this may persist over a relatively long period of time.…”

“…A study in China found that female participants had higher prevalence of PTSS compared to their male counterparts [ 12 ]. Similarly, a study conducted in Nigeria indicated than non-male gender was associated with higher symptoms of PTSS during the COVID-19 pandemic [ 15 ]. However, a different study conducted in Nigeria reported a non-significant impact of gender on PTSS even though the overall prevalence of psychological distress increased during the pandemic [ 13 ].…”

Rasch Modeling and Multilevel Confirmatory Factor Analysis for the Usability of the Impact of Event Scale-Revised (IES-R) during the COVID-19 Pandemic

“…From December 2019 to 5th September 2022, a total of 600,366,479 have been confirmed to be infected with the COVID-19 pandemic; among them, 6,460,493 died, as reported by the WHO [ 8 ]. Despite vaccination, further course of the COVID-19 pandemic is uncertain, and pandemic-induced stress has resulted in significant psychological repercussions [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ]. In the literature, a number of studies tried to measure such post-traumatic psychological repercussions using the IES-R, a self-administered scale to assess PTSD after a traumatic event through measuring the symptoms of intrusion, avoidance, and hyperarousal [ 5 , 47 , 49 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 ].…”

“…Therefore, it is clear from the statistics that although vaccinations and precautions have been taken over the world, the future course seems uncertain [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ]. Pandemic-induced stress has resulted in significant socio-economic and psychological repercussions [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ].…”

Correction to: Factors associated with COVID-19 pandemic induced post-traumatic stress symptoms among adults living with and without HIV in Nigeria: a cross-sectional study

“…Following the publication of the original article [ 1 ], the authors identified that affiliation 7 is incorrect assigned to Eshrat Ara. The correct affiliations are given below.…”