Factors Associated with Acquisition of Human Infective and Animal Infective Trypanosome Infections in Domestic Livestock in Western Kenya

Wissmann, Beatrix von; Machila, Noreen; Picozzi, Kim; Fèvre, Eric M.; Bronsvoort, Barend M. deC.; Handel, Ian; Welburn, Susan C.

doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0000941

Cited by 37 publications

(46 citation statements)

References 32 publications

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“…Carriage of T. b. rhodesiense has been confirmed in the following wild animals:1 bushbuck; duiker; giraffe; hartebeest; hyena; impala; lechwe; lion; oribi; reedbuck; warthog; waterbuck; and zebra, with bushbucks considered as the most frequently described reservoir. Domestic animals, such as bovine and porcine species, have also been identified as reservoirs 85–87. The existence of a reptilian host has been well described, but its contribution to the maintenance of trypanosomes is unlikely, as their body temperature varies considerably, making the survival of parasites improbable 88…”

Section: Transmission Cyclementioning

confidence: 99%

Epidemiology of human African trypanosomiasis

Franco¹,

Simarro²,

Diarra³

et al. 2014

CLEP

259

230

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Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), or sleeping sickness, is caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, which is a chronic form of the disease present in western and central Africa, and by Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, which is an acute disease located in eastern and southern Africa. The rhodesiense form is a zoonosis, with the occasional infection of humans, but in the gambiense form, the human being is regarded as the main reservoir that plays a key role in the transmission cycle of the disease. The gambiense form currently assumes that 98% of the cases are declared; the Democratic Republic of the Congo is the most affected country, with more than 75% of the gambiense cases declared. The epidemiology of the disease is mediated by the interaction of the parasite (trypanosome) with the vectors (tsetse flies), as well as with the human and animal hosts within a particular environment. Related to these interactions, the disease is confined in spatially limited areas called “foci”, which are located in Sub-Saharan Africa, mainly in remote rural areas. The risk of contracting HAT is, therefore, determined by the possibility of contact of a human being with an infected tsetse fly. Epidemics of HAT were described at the beginning of the 20th century; intensive activities have been set up to confront the disease, and it was under control in the 1960s, with fewer than 5,000 cases reported in the whole continent. The disease resurged at the end of the 1990s, but renewed efforts from endemic countries, cooperation agencies, and nongovernmental organizations led by the World Health Organization succeeded to raise awareness and resources, while reinforcing national programs, reversing the trend of the cases reported, and bringing the disease under control again. In this context, sustainable elimination of the gambiense HAT, defined as the interruption of the transmission of the disease, was considered as a feasible target for 2030. Since rhodesiense HAT is a zoonosis, where the animal reservoir plays a key role, the interruption of the disease’s transmission is not deemed feasible.

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Section: Transmission Cyclementioning

confidence: 99%

Epidemiology of human African trypanosomiasis

Franco¹,

Simarro²,

Diarra³

et al. 2014

CLEP

259

230

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“…Pigs are maintained for shorter periods of time but are highly susceptible to infection being frequently exposed to tsetse when free roaming [37]. Trypanosoma brucei s. l. was observed in domestic pigs in Uganda in 1984 [44] but identification of human infective T. b. rhodesiense was not confirmed until pigs were sampled from three endemic foci in south-east Uganda using the blood incubation infectivity testing (BIIT) [44].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Domestic pigs as potential reservoirs of human and animal trypanosomiasis in Northern Tanzania

et al. 2013

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BackgroundPig keeping is becoming increasingly common across sub-Saharan Africa. Domestic pigs from the Arusha region of northern Tanzania were screened for trypanosomes using PCR-based methods to examine the role of pigs as a reservoir of human and animal trypanosomiasis.MethodsA total of 168 blood samples were obtained from domestic pigs opportunistically sampled across four districts in Tanzania (Babati, Mbulu, Arumeru and Dodoma) during December 2004. A suite of PCR-based methods was used to identify the species and sub-species of trypanosomes including: Internally Transcribed Sequence to identify multiple species; species specific PCR to identify T. brucei s. l. and T. godfreyi and a multiplex PCR reaction to distinguish T. b. rhodesiense from T. brucei s. l.ResultsOf the 168 domestic pigs screened for animal and human infective trypanosome DNA, 28 (16.7%) were infected with one or more species of trypanosome; these included: six pigs infected with Trypanosoma vivax (3.6%); three with Trypanosoma simiae (1.8%); two with Trypanosoma congolense (Forest) (1%) and four with Trypanosoma godfreyi (2.4%). Nineteen pigs were infected with Trypanosoma brucei s. l. (10.1%) of which eight were identified as carrying the human infective sub-species Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense (4.8%).ConclusionThese results show that in Tanzania domestic pigs may act as a significant reservoir for animal trypanosomiasis including the cattle pathogens T. vivax and T. congolense, the pig pathogen T. simiae, and provide a significant reservoir for T. b. rhodesiense, the causative agent of acute Rhodesian sleeping sickness.

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“…von Wissmann et al (2011) stated that, since the 1980s, cuts have been made to tsetse and trypanosomiasis control efforts in Kenya, which have placed the burden of disease control on local farmers rather than public officials. These cuts, as well as the shift toward localized control, are consistent with the continent-wide reduction in funding for tsetse and trypanosomiasis control projects that has taken place since the 1970s.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Tsetse fly control in Kenya’s spatially and temporally dynamic control reservoirs: A cost analysis

et al. 2012

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Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) and animal African trypanosomiasis (AAT) are significant health concerns throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa. Funding for tsetse fly control operations has decreased since the 1970s, which has in turn limited the success of campaigns to control the disease vector. To maximize the effectiveness of the limited financial resources available for tsetse control, this study develops and analyzes spatially and temporally dynamic tsetse distribution maps of Glossina subgenus Morsitans populations in Kenya from January 2002 to December 2010, produced using the Tsetse Ecological Distribution Model. These species distribution maps reveal seasonal variations in fly distributions. Such variations allow for the identification of “control reservoirs” where fly distributions are spatially constrained by fluctuations in suitable habitat and tsetse population characteristics. Following identification of the control reservoirs, a tsetse management operation is simulated in the control reservoirs using capital and labor control inputs from previous studies. Finally, a cost analysis, following specific economic guidelines from existing tsetse control analyses, is conducted to calculate the total cost of a nationwide control campaign of the reservoirs compared to the cost of a nationwide campaign conducted at the maximum spatial extent of the fly distributions from January 2002 to December 2010. The total cost of tsetse management within the reservoirs sums to $14,212,647, while the nationwide campaign at the maximum spatial extent amounts to $33,721,516. This savings of $19,508,869 represents the importance of identifying seasonally dynamic control reservoirs when conducting a tsetse management campaign, and, in the process, offers an economical means of fly control and disease management for future program planning.

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Factors Associated with Acquisition of Human Infective and Animal Infective Trypanosome Infections in Domestic Livestock in Western Kenya

Cited by 37 publications

References 32 publications

Epidemiology of human African trypanosomiasis

Epidemiology of human African trypanosomiasis

Domestic pigs as potential reservoirs of human and animal trypanosomiasis in Northern Tanzania

Tsetse fly control in Kenya’s spatially and temporally dynamic control reservoirs: A cost analysis

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