Exploitation in Human Trafficking and Smuggling

Campana, Paolo; Varese, Federico

doi:10.1007/s10610-015-9286-6

Cited by 76 publications

(34 citation statements)

References 32 publications

(21 reference statements)

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“…This paper interprets human smuggling as an illegal trade in which the commodity traded is primarily the illegal entry into a country (Campana and Varese 2016;Kleemans 2011). This sets smuggling apart from human trafficking as in the latter case the commodity traded is primarily control over a person (see Campana and Varese 2016 for a discussion). Trade normally takes place in a market, which, by definition, is characterised by supply and demand.…”

Section: The Market For Smuggling Servicesmentioning

confidence: 99%

The Market for Human Smuggling into Europe: A Macro Perspective

Campana

2017

Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice

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The public discourse on human smuggling into the European Union often evokes the presence of a few all-powerful "Mr Bigs" who are able to "mastermind" illegal operations. This paper takes a closer look at the recent trends in relation to two key smuggling routes-the Eastern and the Central Mediterranean-with the aim to identify the analytical and empirical features of the markets for smuggling services. It shows that these markets have the ability to expand considerably and often over a short period of time. It then argues that this is consistent with the presence of many competitive enterprises, low barriers to entry, low skills and (relatively) low capital requirements. This is a far cry from how the public discourse is often framed. The costs to the smugglers of monitoring agents and clients are also likely to be modest-particularly in comparison with human trafficking. The paper concludes by discussing some policy implications, including the adoption of land-based policies (regarded as more effective than naval operations) and a suggestion for a change in the terminology adopted in policy and intelligence reports.

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Section: The Market For Smuggling Servicesmentioning

confidence: 99%

The Market for Human Smuggling into Europe: A Macro Perspective

Campana

2017

Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice

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“…The police framing of growers as drugs criminals, with the accompanying perfunctory consideration of modern slavery fits nicely with traditional, 'binary' concepts of slavery. However, these cases have demonstrated the reality of how a narrative of smuggling can be transformed into one of trafficking, as Campana and Varese (2015) have suggested. Therefore, police agencies with aims to reduce harm and identify victims need to take a more holistic approach to identifying modern slavery, considering a modern understanding of what it may involve.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 96%

Detecting Modern Slavery on Cannabis Farms: The Challenges of Evidence

Ramiz

Rock

Strang

2020

Camb J Evid Based Polic

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Research Question To what extent could police identify victims of modern slavery among growers arrested on cannabis farms as suspects under drug laws, and what challenges of evidence would have to be met to separate offending from victimisation? Data A purposive sample of criminal history data of all Vietnamese nationals arrested for cannabis cultivation offences in Surrey/Sussex in the 3 years to 2017 (N = 19) was identified and collected. Three 'cannabis farm' cases from the period 2014-2017 were analysed to produce key information about growers, including their nationality, criminal history and possible status as modern slavery victims. The case records and interviews provide key information about the extent to which growers on farms were treated as slaves under the 2015 Modern Slavery Act. Methods Semi-structured interviews were conducted with the three arrested growers to explore their lived experiences of recruitment and labour on the farms. Arresting police officers were also interviewed to explore how they frame the problem of cannabis cultivation and make decisions about their role in confronting it. Interview transcripts were prepared for analytic purposes. All interviewees were informed that the research was focused on the management of the policing of cannabis farms alone and full anonymity was assured. Findings Five of the 19 Vietnamese nationals had previous criminal disposals. Of the remaining 14 individuals, five had no record and nine had various charges, but the prosecutions had not reached court. Of the three cases examined in depth, the arrested growers provided stories consistent with their having been trafficked and subjected to 'debt bondage'. They described precarious journeys before being forced to work on UK farms. All three had been exposed to threats of violence or death for themselves and/or their families, should they attempt escape. Varying levels of mental and physical hardship were evidenced. There were a priori reasons to conclude that they were eligible to be considered modern slavery victims. When arrested, however, none had pleaded victimisation. Police officers demonstrated an ignorance of related legislation and varying levels of awareness of the possibility of modern slavery. They responded to the first impression made by the grower as a person culpable under drugs laws. Even where officers had concerns about modern slavery, no appropriate crime was recorded, and no formalised investigation followed.

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“…In a nutshell, the presumed major differences between migrant smuggling and human trafficking are the following: the presence/absence of consent, the purpose of exploitation, the length of the relationship between the trafficker/smugglers (temporality), 5 the necessary presence of a cross-border dimension for migrant smuggling, and the distinct interests protected, namely the protection of the human rights of the trafficked victim and the protection of the State's interest in controlling its migration flows, respectively (Salt and Stein 1997;Gallagher 2008;Campana and Varese 2016;Hathaway 2008; see also the European Commission website "trafficking explained"). It must be highlighted that some of these differences such as the presence/absence of consent and the length of the relationship are not laid down in the international legal instruments.…”

Section: Law In the Books: On The Strict Distinction Between Human Trmentioning

confidence: 99%

How useful is the concept of transit migration in an intra-Schengen mobility context? Diving into the migrant smuggling and human trafficking nexus in search for answers

Rebetz

2020

Eur J Crim Policy Res

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When using the concept of transit migration, contemporary scholarly literature and policy documents typically refer to situations located outside or at the outskirts of the European Union. By analyzing the critical and empirical scholarship which uncovers the so-called gray area where it becomes hard to make clear distinctions that can be found at the nexus between migrant smuggling and human trafficking, the article aims to shed new light on the real-life vulnerabilities and dynamics that do not fit prototypical legal categories of either human trafficking or migrant smuggling. In so doing, the article discusses and analyzes legal and empirical scholarship that uncovers these vulnerabilities. The vulnerabilities observed are likely to be further enhanced in transit zones where stranded individuals within the EU aim to continue their (increasingly) fragmented/non-linear migration journeys. Therefore, the article proposes to consider the usefulness and the usage of the notion of “transit migration” in the context of Intra-Schengen border mobility and not just when discussing external border mobility. The article argues that the concept of transit migration, if carefully defined, and if particular vulnerabilities found in transit space are recognized, can serve as a helpful lens that can prevent falling into the trap of conceiving migrant smuggling and human trafficking as strictly separate phenomena.

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Exploitation in Human Trafficking and Smuggling

Cited by 76 publications

References 32 publications

The Market for Human Smuggling into Europe: A Macro Perspective

The Market for Human Smuggling into Europe: A Macro Perspective

Detecting Modern Slavery on Cannabis Farms: The Challenges of Evidence

How useful is the concept of transit migration in an intra-Schengen mobility context? Diving into the migrant smuggling and human trafficking nexus in search for answers

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