Exceptional Learners

Abstract

Exceptional learners is the term used in the United States to refer to students with disabilities (as well as those who are gifted and talented). The majority of students with disabilities have cognitive and/or behavioral disabilities, that is, specific learning disability (SLD), intellectual disability (ID), emotional disturbance, (ED), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorders (ASD). The remaining have primarily sensory and/or physical disabilities (e.g., blindness, deafness, traumatic brain injury, cerebral palsy, muscular dystrophy). Many of the key research and policy issues pertaining to exceptional learners involve their definitions and identification. For example, prior to SLD being formally recognized by the U.S. Department of Education in the 1970s, its prevalence was estimated at approximately 2% to 3% of the school-age population. However, the prevalence of students identified for special education as SLD grew rapidly until by 1999 it reached 5.68% for ages 6 to 17 years. Since then, the numbers identified as SLD has declined slowly but steadily. One probable explanation for the decrease is that response to intervention has largely replaced IQ-achievement as the method of choice for identifying SLD. The term intellectual disability has largely replaced the classification of mental retardation. This change originated in the early 2000s because of the unfortunate growing popularity of using retard as a pejorative. Although ID used to be determined by a low IQ-test score, one must also have low adaptive behavior (such as daily living skills) to be diagnosed as ID. That is the likely reason why the prevalence of students with ID at under 1% is well below the estimated prevalence of 2.27% based solely on IQ scores two standard deviations (i.e., 70) below the norm of 100. There are two behavioral dimensions of ED: externalizing (including conduct disorder) and internalizing (anxiety and withdrawal) behaviors. Research evidence indicates that students with ED are underserved in public schools. Researchers have now confirmed ADHD as a bona fide neurologically based disability. The American Psychiatric Association recognizes three types of ADHD: (a) ADHD, Predominantly Inattentive Type; (b) ADHD, Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Type; and (c) ADHD, Combined Type. The American Psychiatric Association recognizes two types of ASD: social communication impairment and repetitive/restricted behaviors. The prevalence of ASD diagnosis has increased dramatically. Researchers point to three probable reasons for this increase: a greater awareness of ASD by the public and professionals; a more liberal set of criteria for diagnosing ASD, especially as it pertains to those who are higher functioning; and “diagnostic substitution”—persons being identified as having ASD who previously would have been diagnosed as mentally retarded or intellectually disabled. Instruction for exceptional children, referred to as “special education,” differs from what most (typical or average) children require. Research indicates that effective instruction for students with disabilities is individualized, explicit, systematic, and intensive. It differs with respect to size of group taught and amount of corrective feedback and reinforcement used. Also, from the student’s viewpoint, it is more predictable. In addition, each of these elements is on a continuum.

Gender Differences in Attitude Toward Students with Disabilities Among Primary Students in Jakarta

“…"Inclusive Education" is the term used to describe teaching students with and without disabilities in the same environment [2]. Ref.…”

Students with Disabilities in Universitas Indonesia: Lecturer Attitudes and Willingness to Practice Inclusive Teaching Strategies

“…In addition to attitudes, other things that are considered to contribute to the success of students in higher education are the extent to which lecturers are willing to do accommodation [4]. Lecturers are expected to be able to flexibly adapt and accommodate teaching strategies, as well as be able to give special attention to the students with special need.…”

Religiusitas dan stres pengasuhan pada ibu dengan anak autis

“…Autis merupakan penarikan diri yang ekstrem dari lingkungan sosialnya, gangguan dalam berkomunikasi, serta tingkah laku yang terbatas dan berulang yang muncul sebelum usia 3 tahun (Hallahan & Kauffman, 2006). Penelitian lain menjelaskan Autis adalah gangguan yang dimulai dan dialami pada masa anak-anak dengan gejala adanya ketidakmampuan untuk berinteraksi dengan orang lain, gangguan berbahasa yang ditunjukkan dengan penguasaan yang tertunda, pembalikan kalimat dan lain sebagainya (Johnson, Burkett, & Reinhold, 2015).…”

“…Mangunsong, (2009) menyebutkan terdapat tiga karakteristik dari gangguan Autis, antara lain gangguan interaksi sosial, gangguan komunikasi dan gangguan perilaku. Selain itu terdapat karakteristik-karakteristik tambahan, yaitu gangguan dalam kognitif, persepsi sensori, motorik, afektif, tingkah laku agresif dan berbahaya serta gangguan tidur dan pola makan (Hallahan & Kauffman, 2006). Salah satu gangguan yang paling menonjol pada anak Autis adalah gangguan yang berhubungan dengan masalah sosial (Mangunsong, 2009).…”

“…Hallan & Kauffman (2006) mengindikasi prevalensi sebesar 60 dari 10.000 anak untuk ASD dan 8-30 dari 10.000 anak untuk Autis saja. Studi secara konsisten menunjukan prevalensi ASD lebih banyak pada anak laki-laki daripada perempuan (3:1 atau 4:1), kecuali pada sindrom Rett, dimana sebagian besar yang terkena adalah perempuan (Hallahan & Kauffman, 2006). Namun, anak perempuan dengan gangguan autis mempunyai gejala lebih berat dan hasil tes intelegensinya lebih rendah daripada anak laki-laki (Widyawati dalam Mangunsong, 2009).…”