Evolutionary process and development implications of traditional trade routes in the Himalayan region

Abstract

Traditional trade routes that penetrate the natural barrier of the Himalayas are critical for connecting major Chinese and South Asian markets. Research on these trade routes can contribute significantly to facilitating the construction of the South Asian Corridor and enhancing trans-Himalayan connectivity. Combining historical literature, field surveys, and geographic information system (GIS) techniques, this study examined the spatial distribution characteristics and evolution process of the routes, focusing on transverse valleys of the Himalayan arc. The key findings were as follows. First, there are 21 traditional trade routes traversing the Himalayan region: six Sino-Nepalese routes, four Sino-Bhutanese routes, and eleven Sino-Indian routes. Second, the evolution of traditional trade routes has entailed five distinct phases: an incipient period (pre-7th century), formation (7th century-842 AD), development (842-1959), decline (1959-1962) and recovery (1962-present). Third, the incipient and formative developmental phases were prompted by the spread of Buddhism and the exchange of goods. The stability of local governments in Tibet and Central China and favourable border trade policies along with Britain's colonial expansion and commercial interests stimulated further development of traditional trade routes. However, India's strategic miscalculation and "Forward Policy" instigated the decline phase, while the demands of regional cooperation and development are currently the key drivers of the restoration and construction phase. Finally, to shelve disputes, promote cooperation and development, and enhance political mutual trust, governments should recover and construct traditional trade routes by replanning and constructing border trade markets, expanding border trade, developing pilgrimage and tourism, and strengthening cross-border cooperative research under global climate change.

An ethnobotanical study on wild plants used by Tibetan people in Gyirong Valley, Tibet, China

“…This plant was first recorded in the “Si Bu Yi Dian and was mainly used to treat fever [ 23 , 57 ]. According to the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, this plant can treat many diseases [ 42 ]. In the Yadong County of the Himalayas and Maithili region of eastern Nepal, it is used by locals to treat fever and headaches with high consensus [ 30 ].…”

“…Since the Han and Tang Dynasties, there have been silk trade traffic routes from mainland China through Tibet, Nepal (known as Nibala in ancient times) and India. Among them, Gyirong is one of the important ports from ancient Tibet to Kathmandu, Nepal [ 42 , 43 ]. Therefore, Indian and Nepalese styles can still be observed in some temple buildings.…”

An ethnobotanical study on wild plants used by Tibetan people in Gyirong valley, Tibet, China

“…Gyirong is an ancient trade route for thousands of years [42]. Yadong is a trade port opened in modern times, and it is also the way to go through the ancient tea-horse road [40]. Purang is the pilgrimage road to Mount Kailash.…”

“…For example, Yadong, Burang, Zhangmu and Chentang, are all important trade routes and grain producing areas in Tibet. Gyirong valley known as the "Back Garden of the Himalayas" and is located in the core area of the Everest National Nature Reserve to the south of Shigatse City in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China, which is the main ethnic group is Tibetans [40]. The traditional trade between China and Nepal has a long history.…”

“…Since the Han and Tang Dynasties, there have been silk trade tra c routes from mainland China through Tibet, Nepal (known as Nibala in ancient times) and India. Among them, Gyirong is one of the important ports from ancient Tibet to Kathmandu, Nepal [40,41], as well as an important land port in China, with special location and geographical advantages.…”