Evaluation of a Partially Reversible Immobilization Protocol Using Medetomidine, Butorphanol, Zolazepam–tiletamine, and Ketamine in Free-Ranging Warthogs (Phacochoerus Africanus) in Kruger National Park, South Africa

Hewlett, Jennie; Buss, Peter; Olea‐Popelka, Francisco; Koeppel, Katja Natalie; Neiffer, Donald L.; Hausler, Guy; Rossouw, Leana; Manamela, Tebogo; Stout, E. L.; Miller, Michele A.

doi:10.1638/2019-0110

Cited by 4 publications

(11 citation statements)

References 16 publications

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“…In this study, drug effects were observed by approximately 2 min and warthogs were recumbent and could be handled within 5–6 min. Although a different cohort of warthogs was used, a previous study using free-ranging warthogs in Kruger National Park showed that a combination of medetomidine, butorphanol, tiletamine-zolazepam, and ketamine (MBTZK) resulted in immobilization in a similar time frame (~6 min) (9). These induction times are also similar to those reported using cyclohexylamine and alpha2-agonist immobilization combinations in wild and domestic suids (10–12).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In this study at t = 20, 55% of warthogs immobilized with etorphine, azaperone, and butorphanol had reached an immobilization score of 3 (light), with 30% reaching a score of 4 (moderate). Using the same immobilization scoring system to assess responses to stimuli and degree of relaxation, 95% of warthogs immobilized with MBTZK had an immobilization score of 5 (surgical) at t = 20 (9). Both drug combinations resulted in a stable immobilization plane for the remaining 20 min of the study.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In contrast, 79% of total scores for warthogs immobilized with MBTZK were 5, consistent with a surgical plane of anesthesia. These animals had a loss of palpebral and pedal reflexes, absent jaw tone, regular breathing, and no reaction to sampling or ear notching (9). In other studies, warthogs receiving tiletamine-zolazepam and xylazine retained their reflexes (similar to immobilization score 3) (12).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Although normal values for warthogs are unknown, the mean heart rate values measured in etorphine, azaperone, and butorphanol immobilized animals were considered to be higher than normal with an overall mean of 95 bpm (14). In MBTZK-immobilized warthogs, the overall mean HR was 65 bpm (9). Anesthetized pigs in other studies had reported HR in the range of 70–150 bpm, with bradycardia considered to be <50–70 bpm (14, 15).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Induction times and quality (using a previously described subjective scoring system), immobilization quality, and recovery times and quality were recorded (9). Induction quality was assessed using a scale of 1 (excellent) to 4 (poor).…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Evaluation of Physiological Parameters and Effectiveness of an Immobilization Protocol Using Etorphine, Azaperone, and Butorphanol in Free-Ranging Warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus)

et al. 2019

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Twenty free-ranging warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) in the Kruger National Park, South Africa, were immobilized with a combination of etorphine (0.039 ± 0.005 mg/kg) and azaperone (0.44 ± 0.06 mg/kg) administered intramuscularly by dart. Butorphanol (1 mg per mg etorphine) was administered intravenously at t = 5 min. A standardized scoring system was used to record induction, immobilization and recovery characteristics. Physiological parameters were recorded at 5 min intervals and an arterial sample collected for blood gas analyses every 15 min. At 45 min after butorphanol administration, immobilization was partially reversed by administering naltrexone (40x etorphine dose in mg) intravenously. Overall, induction quality was good, with the mean time to safe handling 5.9 ± 1.4 min. The majority of immobilization scores (54%) over the entire monitoring period (40 min) were at level 3, consistent with a light plane in which palpebral and laryngeal reflexes were still present but the animal could be safely handled. Overall mean heart rate was 94.7 ± 15.3 beats per min, mean respiratory rate was 14.7 ± 9.8 breaths per min, and the mean rectal temperature was 38.5 ± 1.0°C. Significant hypoxia (overall mean oxygen arterial partial pressure 38.8 ± 8.4 mmHg), hypercapnia (mean carbon dioxide arterial partial pressure 63.3 ± 7.8 mmHg), and acidosis (mean pH 7.28 ± 0.04) were observed in immobilized warthogs. Following antagonist administration, warthogs were standing within 1.0 ± 0.4 min, with the majority of recoveries scored as excellent. The drug combination proved to be effective in the immobilization of free-ranging warthogs with rapid induction and recovery, but with significant cardio-respiratory changes. Therefore, this drug combination may be useful when rapid immobilization and recovery are indicated, but should be used cautiously in compromised warthogs.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Evaluation of Physiological Parameters and Effectiveness of an Immobilization Protocol Using Etorphine, Azaperone, and Butorphanol in Free-Ranging Warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus)

et al. 2019

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How is depth of anaesthesia assessed in experimental pigs? A scoping review

et al. 2023

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Background Despite the large number of pigs involved in translational studies, no gold standard depth of anaesthesia indicators are available. We undertook a scoping review to investigate and summarize the evidence that sustains or contradicts the use of depth of anaesthesia indicators in this species. Methods Medline, Embase and CAB abstract were searched up to September 22nd 2022. No limits were set for time, language and study type. Only original articles of in vivo studies using pigs or minipigs undergoing general anaesthesia were included. The depth of anaesthesia indicators reported in the selected papers were divided in two categories: A, indicators purposely investigated as method to assess depth of anaesthesia; B, indicators reported but not investigated as method to assess depth of anaesthesia. Results Out of 13792 papers found, 105 were included after the screening process. Category A: 17 depth of anaesthesia indicators were found in 19 papers. Studies were conducted using inhalant anaesthetics as the main anaesthetic agent in the majority of the cases (13/19 = 68.4%), while 3/19 (15.8%) used propofol. The most investigated depth of anaesthesia indicators were bispectral index (8/19 = 42.1%) and spectral edge frequency 95% (5/19 = 26.3%). Contrasting results about the specific usefulness of each depth of anaesthesia indicators were reported. Category B: 23 depth of anaesthesia indicators were found in 92 papers. The most reported depth of anaesthesia indicators were: motor response following a stimulus (37/92 = 40.2%), depth of anaesthesia scores (21/92 = 23.3%), bispectral index (16/92 = 17.8%) and spectral edge frequency 95% (9/92 = 9.8%). Conclusion Results highlight the lack of scientifically valid and reliable indicators to ensure adequate depth of anaesthesia in pigs.

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Medetomidine-Ketamine-Midazolam Versus Medetomidine-Ketamine-Butorphanol for Immobilization of Red Kangaroos (Osphranter Rufus)

Makrin-Dray¹,

Lapid²,

Kafri³

et al. 2021

Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine

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Evaluation of a Partially Reversible Immobilization Protocol Using Medetomidine, Butorphanol, Zolazepam–tiletamine, and Ketamine in Free-Ranging Warthogs (Phacochoerus Africanus) in Kruger National Park, South Africa

Cited by 4 publications

References 16 publications

Evaluation of Physiological Parameters and Effectiveness of an Immobilization Protocol Using Etorphine, Azaperone, and Butorphanol in Free-Ranging Warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus)

Evaluation of Physiological Parameters and Effectiveness of an Immobilization Protocol Using Etorphine, Azaperone, and Butorphanol in Free-Ranging Warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus)

How is depth of anaesthesia assessed in experimental pigs? A scoping review

Medetomidine-Ketamine-Midazolam Versus Medetomidine-Ketamine-Butorphanol for Immobilization of Red Kangaroos (Osphranter Rufus)

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