Evaluating the Level of Pesticides in the Blood of Small-Scale Farmers and Its Associated Risk Factors in Western Ethiopia

Abstract

Background: The presence of agricultural pesticide residue can cause adverse health effects.The main objective of this study was to evaluate the level of pesticides in the blood of small-scale farmers (SSFs) and associated risk factors in western Ethiopia. Methods: Across sectional study was conducted in June 2020 using 240 blood samples, 140 from the exposed small-scale farmers (ESSFs) and 100 from non-exposed small-scale farmers (NESSFs). The blood sample analysis was mad for 5 organochlorines (OCs) and 3 synthetic pyrethroids (SPs) pesticides by gas-liquid chromatography with an electron capture detector (GC-ECD) methods. Extraction, and clean up of the samples were made by using standard analytical methods. To define the relationships between the outcomes and explanatory variables, logistic regression models were used. Results: The results shows that p,p’-DDT, heptachlor and deltamethrin were the most frequently detected pesticides with 96.4%, 95%, and 100% in both ESSFs and NESSFs, respectively. The ESSFs blood samples have shown the highest mean concentrations of permethrin and p,p'-DDT(1.26 ± 0.15) and (0.28 ± 0.4) mgL−1, respectively. SSFs under the age of 40 were 21% less likely to be exposed to permethrin than those above the age of 40 (Adjusted Odd Ratio, AOR, 0.21; 95% CI: 0.1-0.44). Male SSFs were 17 times more likely to be exposed to heptachlor than females (AOR, 17.36; 95%CI: 7.34-41.09) and farmers with no formal education were 18 times more likely to be exposed to deltamethrin than those with primary schools and beyond (AOR, 18.1; 95 %CI: 4.53-72.06). Furthermore, SSFs that did not use PPE appropriately were 3.6 and 6.21 times more likely to be exposed to cypermethrin (AOR, 3.6; 95%CI: 1.94-6.54) and p,p'-DDE(AOR, 6.21; 95%CI: 3.38-11.41) blood levels than those who did, respectively. SSFs that perform different activities like eating and drinking (11%), chewing (10%), and diverse activities (8%) were more likely to be exposed to p,p′-DDT than those farmers who didn’t use pesticides. Conclusions: This study identified a high concentration p,p'-DDE, p,p'-DDT, heptachlor, cypermethrin, permethrin, and deltamethrin in the blood of small scale farmers. The older age, less education, and farmers with inappropriate PPE use are more likely exposed to pesticides.

Prevalence of Pesticide Use and Occupational Exposure Among Small-Scale Farmers in Western Ethiopia

“…This reveals that younger groups would be convenient for the recommended PPE on pesticides use as compared to older SSFs who could use more pesticides to maximize their products 18 and due to bioaccumulation of pesticides from past exposure and decreasing rates of excretion with increasing age for small-scale farmers. 21,32…”

“…40 Moreover, mixing the pesticides with bare hands, not wearing PPE, and carelessly disposing of leftover pesticides 42 causes high exposure of SSFs to pesticide chemicals. 21…”

“…18 Thus, farmworkers are considered a primary risk group that receives a lot of exposure to pesticides. 19-21 The adverse effects of pesticides on health are increasing in developing countries due to low educational levels and unfavorable working conditions. 22,23…”

“…18 Thus, farmworkers are considered a primary risk group that receives a lot of exposure to pesticides. [19][20][21] The adverse effects of pesticides on health are increasing in developing countries due to low educational levels and unfavorable working conditions. 22,23 Moreover, lack of knowledge, training, and unintentional application errors such as handling pesticides carelessly can 2 Environmental Health Insights pose serious health risks to farmers.…”

Human Exposure to Pesticides in Dust from Two Agricultural Sites in South Africa

“…Consequently, many concerns have arisen worldwide about the negative impacts of pesticides on the environment and human health. In particular, agricultural region residents are a highly exposed population, with higher quantification frequencies and levels of pesticides found in various environmental media from rural areas, such as air [ 15 , 16 ], dust [ 17 , 18 , 19 ], silicone wristbands [ 20 , 21 ], and human samples such as urine [ 22 , 23 , 24 ] and blood [ 25 , 26 ]. In addition, several epidemiological studies have found an association between residential proximity to agricultural fields and diseases such as autism [ 27 , 28 ], Parkinson’s disease [ 29 ], childhood cancer [ 30 , 31 ], and also with neurobehavioral effects [ 32 ].…”