Estimating the Prevalence of HIV and Sexual Behaviors Among the US Transgender Population: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis, 2006–2017

Abstract

Background. Transgender women (transwomen) in the United States have been shown to have high HIV risk with Black and Hispanic transwomen being particularly vulnerable. Growing research on transgender men (transmen) also shows increased HIV risk and burden, although not as much is known for this transgender population. Objectives. This systematic review estimates the prevalence of self-reported and laboratory-confirmed HIV infection, reported sexual and injection behaviors, and contextual factors associated with HIV risk of transgender persons living in the United States. Search Methods. We searched the HIV Prevention Research Synthesis database and MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO, CINAHL, and Sociological Abstracts databases from January 2006 to March 2017 and January 2006 to May 2017, respectively. Additional hand searches were conducted in December 2017 to obtain studies not found in the literature searches. Selection Criteria. Eligible reports were published US-based studies that included transgender persons and reported HIV status. Data collection and analysis. Data were double-coded and quality assessed. We used random-effects models employing the DerSimonian–Laird method to calculate overall prevalence of HIV infection, risk behaviors, and contextual factors for transwomen, transmen, and race/ethnicity subgroups. Main Results. We reviewed 88 studies, the majority of which were cross-sectional surveys. Overall laboratory-confirmed estimated prevalence of HIV infection was 9.2% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 6.0%, 13.7%; κ = 24). Among transwomen and transmen, HIV infection prevalence estimates were 14.1% (95% CI = 8.7%, 22.2%; κ = 13) and 3.2% (95% CI = 1.4%, 7.1%; κ = 8), respectively. Self-reported HIV infection was 16.1% (95% CI = 12.0%, 21.2%; κ = 44), 21.0% (95% CI = 15.9%, 27.2%; κ = 30), and 1.2% (95% CI = 0.4%, 3.1%; κ = 7) for overall, transwomen, and transmen, respectively. HIV infection estimates were highest among Blacks (44.2%; 95% CI = 23.2%, 67.5%; κ = 4). Overall, participation in sex work was 31.0% (95% CI = 23.9%, 39.0%; κ = 39). Transwomen (37.9%; 95% CI = 29.0%, 47.7%; κ = 29) reported higher participation in sex work than transmen (13.1%; 95% CI = 6.6%, 24.3%; κ = 10; P = .001). Most outcomes indicated high heterogeneity in the overall and subgroup analyses. Conclusions. The availability of more data allowed us to calculate estimates separately for transwomen and transmen. HIV prevalence estimates for US transwomen were lower than previous estimates, but estimates for HIV prevalence and participation in sex work were higher when compared with transmen. Evidence gaps remain for transmen and the syndemic relationship of HIV, risky behaviors, and contextual factors specific to the transgender experience. Public Health Implications. This study highlights gender disparities for HIV and risky sexual behavior, as well as evidence gaps that exist for transmen. Tailored programs and services for the transgender population need to be developed to encourage use of and access to HIV prevention services.

High HIV prevalence and associated risk factors among transgender women in China: a cross‐sectional survey

“…While the body of literature finds sex work associated with elevated HIV risk , we did not find such a direct association in our study. We suspect a likely response bias of under‐reporting because sex work is illegal in China , as in much of the world.…”

Information-Motivation-Behavioral Skills Model of Consistent Condom Use among Transgender Women in Shenyang, China

“…Variable CCU rates with different types of sexual partners detected in the current study proved this speculation; CCU rates with regular sexual partners, casual sexual partners, and transactional sexual partners were 26.3%, 28.8%, and 59.1%, respectively. Anyway, the overall CCU rate in China was much lower than that reported in previous systematic research among US transgender population (61.8%) [1], indicating the severity of high risk sexual behavior among Chinese TGW and appealing to urgent and effective intervention.…”

“…Transgender women (TGW) are those whose gender identity (woman) is different from their birthassigned sex (male) [1]. Despite the scarcity of this population (0.5-0.9% of the population are identified as transgender worldwide [2][3][4]), their contribution to HIV prevalence is considerable.…”

“…Despite the scarcity of this population (0.5-0.9% of the population are identified as transgender worldwide [2][3][4]), their contribution to HIV prevalence is considerable. The overall HIV prevalence (self-reported and laboratory confirmed) for TGW worldwide is 18.8-28% [1,[5][6][7][8]; this group has a 49-fold higher odds of infection compared with other reproductive age adults [6], and twice the odds compared with men who have sex with men (MSM) [5]. In China, TGW are not covered by routine HIV surveillance [9], but several small-sample studies suggest TGW's high HIV prevalence rate.…”

High risk and low uptake of pre‐exposure prophylaxis to prevent HIV acquisition in a national online sample of transgender men who have sex with men in the United States

“…Studies demonstrate that trans women are disproportionately affected by HIV infection relative to (“cis”) people and have been a focus of HIV prevention interventions, including pre‐exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) to prevent HIV. Only recently, have researchers begun to evaluate HIV risk among trans masculine people, those assigned a female sex a birth who identify as men, transgender men, or another gender identity on the trans masculine spectrum . Trans masculine individuals have often been erroneously thought to identify exclusively as heterosexual or to engage in sex with only cis women .…”