Environmental Inequality in China: A “Pyramid Model” and Nationwide Pilot Analysis of Prefectures with Sources of Industrial Pollution

Abstract

Abstract:In China, environmental pollution generated via industrialization as well as profound changes in the social structure and the gradual maturation of the social hierarchy have jointly contributed to the Chinese people's increased environmental consciousness and appeals for environmental justice (EJ). Because of the absence of an EJ theory and a lack of empirical research focused on China, this paper proposes a "Pyramid Model" for EJ research in China that includes the following three factors: basic demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, U.S.-based EJ principles, and Chinese characteristics. A nationwide pilot analysis of environmental inequality at the prefecture level is conducted by empirically examining the association between the demographic variables and socioeconomic status with sources of industrial pollution in China. The prefecture-based results are shown to be robust, and they indicate that areas inhabited by ethnic minorities and western regions of China carry disproportionate environmental burdens. However, a different picture for migrants is presented, revealing that Chinese migrants are not currently exposed to greater levels of industrial pollution. Relevant interpretations of these findings are provided. The results also show that environmental inequality associated with income level, which is observed in the U.S., does not occur in China.

Theoretical Model of Environmental Justice and Environmental Inequality in China’s Four Major Economic Zones

“…In addition, neither age structure young i nor unemployment level unem i constitute significant factors affecting the unequal distribution of industrial pollution sources. It is worth noting that the results of the gender ratio in the samples of the four economic zones at the county level are different from those in the nationwide samples of the prefecture level in He et al [25], all of which are significantly positive at the significance level of 10%. This finding indicates that in the four major economic zones, men are more exposed to environmental risks caused by industrial pollution than women, and every doubling of the male population compared with the female population corresponds to an additional 1 to 2 countries controlling industrial pollution sources.…”

“…Sustainability 2019, 11, 5923 3 of 20 To fill in the gaps in the understanding of environmental justice in China, this paper first pioneered in the construction of a general equilibrium theory model that verifies the normality of environmental injustice. On the basis of He et al [25], we construct an analytical framework and econometric model suitable for empirical research on environmental inequality at county level in the four economic zones of China. Then, by using the list of key industrial pollution sources monitored by the Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP) of China, we carry out empirical and comparative studies on the environmental inequality in the four economic zones.…”

“…To achieve the first research objective mentioned above, specific econometric models are constructed according to the general form of China's environmental justice research model [25] as follows:…”

“…For example, only some of the township and street data in the Pearl River Delta region are available according to the 2010 population census, making the county level the smallest geographical unit whose analysis is statistically feasible. (2) The prefecture-level geographical unit [25] cannot meet the measurement requirements for the comparative analysis of the four economic zones. For example, the Pearl River Delta region covers only 9 cities, and more than 10 independent variables are examined.…”

“…However, only a few empirical studies have analyzed the geographical distribution of industrial pollution sources in Henan Province [23] and Jiangsu Province [24] and concluded that rural residents, especially migrant workers, are more exposed to pollutants. He et al [25] set up a socioeconomic model specific to China and discussed environmental justice in China in a comprehensive way. According to their empirical study at the prefecture level, they found that minority areas and western regions may suffer from disproportionate industrial pollution sources.…”